v^ 


A 
'/ 


PUBLISHER'S  NOTICE. 


The  articles  which  we  now  offer  to  the  public,  in  hook  Arm.  are  selected  from 
the  numerous  Essays  written  by  Mr.  WhjttleS-Y,  and  published,  during  a  series 
of  years,  in  magazines  and  periodicals. 

We  have  thought  them  too  valuable  to  be  lost,  and  believe  that  we  are  per- 
forming an  acceptable  service  to  the  community  in  reproducing  them  at  this  time 
in  a  permanent  form. 

Many  of  the  pei-iodicals  in  which  they  appeared  are  but  little  known,  having 
unfortunately,  like  most  western  monthlies,  enjoyed  only  a  brief  existence  and 
limited  circulation. 

Mr.  Whittlesey's  liberal  contributions  to  them  have,  although  requiring  much 
research  and  labor,  added  nothing  to  his  purse,  and  very  little  to  his  reputation. 
We  offer  them  to  our  readers  for  the  solid  information  they  contain. 

Much  of  it  belongs  to  our  home  history,  and  nearly  all  relates  to  the  West  as 
it  is  now,  or  has  been  since  the  advent  of  white  men  within  its  1.  >rders. 

It  is  quite  natural  that  a  gentleman,  reared  in  the  western  forests,  and  whose 
life  has  been  spent  in  surveys  and  explorations  throughout  the  territory  north- 
west of  the  Ohio,  should  feel  an  ardant  interest  in  every  thing  that  relates  to  it,  in 
natural  or  local  history,  statistics,  agriculture,  biography,  or  general  condition. 

These  articles  are  given  as  first  composed,  not  rewritten  or  retouched.  Most 
of  them  were  written  in  haste,  in  the  interval  of  active  field  duties,  and  sent  to 
press  without  revision. 

A  professional  author  would  probably  have  polished  his  phrases,  expunged 
and  inserted  words,  and  made  some  preparation  to  meet  criticism,  before  permit- 
ting his  works  to  appear  before  the  public.  The  style  is  condensed  a»d  brief,  with 
but  little  of  that  ornament  which  characterizes  model  literature ;  but  those  who 
read  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  information  will  excuse  this  wan>  of  finish  in 
recompense  for  the  compact  form  in  which  that  information  is  presented. 

This  selection  is  made  from  about  as  much  more  printed  matter  ^f  a  similar 
kind,  published  by  the  author,  in  a  transient  form,  during  the  last  n\een  years. 
An  equal  amount  of  the  same  cast  is  yet  in  manuscript,  consisting  of  lectures  de- 
livered before  literary  associations,  and  never  printed. 

There  may  be  discovered  in  the  articles  on  early  western  history.  S(  -io  repeti- 
iions,  which,  however,  could  not  be  stricken  out  without  injuring  the  wl?  >le  piece. 

If  it  shall  appear  that  subjects  are  introduced,  not  in  every  respect  agreeing 
with  the  present  state  of  knowledge,  the  reader  will  remember,  that  it  5*  many 
years  since  the  series  was  commenced;  and  he  can  determine  the  date  of  eech  ar 
tida  by  reference  to  the  caption. 


SCHEDULE  OF  SUBJECTS. 


Akticlk  I. 
Review  of  the  "  Historical  Transactions"  of  Ohio. 

Akticlk  II. 
Justice  to  the  Memory  of  John  Fitch. 

Article  III. 
Early  Discoveries  in  the  Mississippi  Valley. 

Article  IV. 
Rights  of  Authors  outside  of  Copyrights. 

Article  V. 
Elevation  of  places  in  Ohio,  with  reference  to  the  Geological  beds. 

Article  VI. 
On  the  Origin  of  Bituminous  Coal. 

Article  VII. 
Lord  Dunmore's  Expedition  to  the  Scioto  Towns  in  1774. 

Article  VIII. 

Antiquitiei  of  America.— Delafield's  Enquiry  into  their  Origin. — 

Lokey'i  Appendix. 


SCHEDULE    OE    SUBJECTS. 

Article  IX. 
On  the  Natural  Terraces  and  Ridges  of  the  Lake  country. 

Article  X. 
The  Age  of  the  Material  Universe. 

Article  XI. 

Settlement  and  Progress  of  the  City  of  Cleveland.— Rise  and  Fall 

of  Water  in  Lake  Erie. 

Article  XII. 
The  Coal  and  Iron  trade  of  the  Ohio  Valley. 

Article  XIII. 
Boquet's  Expedition  into  the  Muskingum  Country,  October  1764. 

Article  XIV. 
Two  months  in  the  Copper  region. 

Article  XV. 

On  the  Agricultural  Interest  and  Condition  of  Ohio. — Yield  of 

Wheat  in  Hamilton  County,  Ohio. 

Article  XVI. 
Relation  of  the  Indian  Tribes  to  the  Whites,  in  1776. 

Article  XVII. 
Indian  Treaties  and  Grants  of  Title  for  the  Territory  of  Ohio. 


FUGITIVE   ESSAYS, 


UPON 


INTERESTING  AND  USEFUL  SUBJECTS, 


RELATING   TO 


THE  EARLY  HISTORY  OF  OHIO, 


ITS  GEOLOGY  AND  AGRICULTURE, 


BIOGRAPHY  OF  THE  FIRST  SUCCESSFUL  CONSTRUCTOR 
OF  STEAMBOATS; 

A  DISSERTATION   UPON    THE 

ANTIQUITY  OF   THE   MATERIAL  UNIVERSE, 

AND    OTHER   ARTICLES,    BEING   A   REPRINT   FROM 
VARIOUS    PERIODICALS    OP    THE    DAY  J 


BY    CHARLES   WHITTLESEY, 

OP  THE  LATE  GEOLOGICAL  CORPS  OF  OHIO  AND  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


HUDSON,    OHIO: 

SAWYER,    INGERSOLL    AND    CO, 

1852. 


FfTJ 
Wt 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  of  our 
Lord  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  fifty-two,  by  Sawyer, 
Ingersoll  &  Co.,  in  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the 
United  States,  for  the  District  of  Ohio. 


WILLIAM     II.  SHUN. 
HUDSON  STZKEOTYPI  FOCNDKT. 


PENTAGON 
STEAM  PKEM. 


REVIEW 

OF   THE 

TRANSACTIONS  OF  THE  HISTORICAL  SOCIETY 
OF  OHIO, 

VOLUME    FIRST,    PART    SECOND. 
[Hesperian,  October  1839.] 


The  appearance  of  this  second  part  of  the  first 
volume  will  relieve  the  society  from  an  unfavorable 
impression  produced  by  the  publication  of  part  first, 
about  a  year  since.  We  do  not  understand  that  every 
paper  which  may  find  its  way  to  the  files  of  the  Society 
is  therefore  entitled  to  publication  in  a  permanent 
form  ;  but  that  the  abiding  works  of  the  Society  are 
intended  to  be  solid,  historical  matter.  Addresses  pro- 
nounced at  its  meetings  may,  or  may  not,  contain 
matter  of  that  kind ;  and  if  it  should  be  thought  a 
courtesy,  due  the  authors,  to  give  them  to  the  public 
in  print,  it  may  be  done  with  great  propriety  in  pam- 
phlet form.  The  object  of  those  compositions  is,  in 
general,  more  to  amuse,  and  keep  in  action,  the  spirit 
of  historical  research,  than  to  convey  to  us  that  kind 
of  information.  Of  this  character,  or  of  a  kind  widely 
removed  from  the  subject  of  history,  are  the  addresses 
of  the  Hon.  B.  Tappan,  Mr.  J.  II.  James,  Timothy 
Walker,  Esq.,  and  Gen.  James  I.  Worthington,  con- 
tained  in   the   first   volume.     They  are    interesting 


4  .   /fUUJTiVE   ESSAYS. 

paper*,  -up!  highly- credits  ble  to  the  authors  and  the 
insutuio;i.  afl  1  iterary." productions :  but,  being  evi- 
dently written,  not  for  the  press,  but  for  oral  delivery, 
to  instruct  and  please  an  audience,  rather  than  to 
inform  the  youth  of  the  West,  the  individual  who 
opens  this  book,  in  the  reasonable  expectation  of  an 
historical  feast,  will  be  somewhat  disappointed  to  find 
much  of  its  space  occupied  by  writings  upon  education, 
law  and  political  institutions.  It  is  not  to  the  addi  • 
or  to  their  publication,  nor  to  the  custom  of  enlivening 
annual  meetings  with  essays  upon  general  subjects, 
that  we  object :  for  much  of  the  interest  and  value  of 
the  Society  is  drawn  from  this  practice. 

The  form  and  manner  of  publication  hitherto 
adopted  will,  however,  we  fear,  destroy  the  popularity 
and  usefulness  of  its  permanent  works.  Philosophy 
is  a  word  associated  with  history,  in  the  name  of  incor- 
poration, and  this  embraces  almost  the  whole  range 
of  human  knowledge ;  but  the  main  design  has  been, 
18,  and  Ought  to  be,  the  preservation  and  publication 
of  historical  facts.  The  practice  we  are  noticing  is 
not  of  so  much  consequence  at  present,  as  it  may  be 
in  future,  when  these  precedents  shall  have  made  it 
a  law. 

It  has  been  said  that  Ohio,  in  common  with  the 
new  States,  would  furnish  but  a  meager  subject  for 
the  historian.  ( >ne  of  this  opinion  must  have  reflected 
little  upon  the  transactions  of  which  the  Mississippi 
Valley  has  been  the  scene,  since  the  year  1673,  when 
the  Frenchman  first  made  his  appearance  within  its 
bounds.  Fiance,  as  intimated  in  the  preface  to  these 
Transactions,  is  probably  the  repository  of  all  the 
important  records  of  this  early  period.  To  the  in- 
habitants of  that  country,  much  more  is  known  of  the 
events  of  the  region  we  inhabit,  than  by  ourselves. 
It  is  to  be  recollected,  English  dominion  was  bounded 


HISTORICAL  TRANSACTIONS.  5 

in  fact  by  the  mountains,  but  the  restless  spirit  of 
the  Frenchman  led  him  beyond  this  barrier,  into  that 
rich  wild,  now  the  seat  of  the  power,  wealth  and  re- 
sources of  the  Union.     He  sailed  through  the  great 
lakes  of  the  North,  traversed  the  thick  wilds  of  the 
West,  floated  with  the  current  of  our  broad  streams, 
built  forts  and  opened  a  commerce  with  the  Indians, 
while   the  Swiss,  English  and  Dutch,  scarcely  pene- 
trated beyond    sight    of   the    Atlantic.      Improving 
upon  the  English    scheme   of   western   colonization, 
France  and  her  enterprising  citizens  intended  to  take 
virtual  possession  of  the  North  American  continent. 
They  effectually  encircled  the  lodgements   of  their 
rivals,  not  only  by  a  line  of  posts,  the  innermost  of 
which  were  Ticonderoga,  Stanwix,  Niagara,  Erie,  Ve- 
nango, Pittsburg,  Loramies,  Vincennes,  Cahokia,  and 
the  mouth  of   the   Ohio,  .but  they  formed   stations 
through  all  the  shores  of  the  lakes,  and  the  country 
between  them  and  the  Ohio   and   Mississippi ;    and, 
what  is  more  than  the  mere  occupancy  of  this  new 
kingdom,  they,  by  means  of  priests,  presents,  liquor 
and  troops,  brought  the  red  man  to  terms  of  friend- 
ship.    What  can  be  more  interesting  than  a  full  dis- 
closure of  those  events  ?     At  the  time  of  the  French 
war  of  1756,  there  were  posts  north  of  the  Ohio,  in 
what  became,  in  1787,  the  Northwestern  Territory, 
at   the    following    places :    French   Creek,   Pa. ;    Du 
Quesne,  at  Pittsburg ;  Fort  Sandusky,  at  Sandusky 
City  ;  on  Maumee  ;  at  Detroit  (called  Ponchartrain) ; 
Mackinaw ;  Fox  River  of  Green  Bay ;  St.  Joseph's, 
mouth  of  St.  Joseph's  River ;  Lake  Michigan ;    Cre- 
vecceur,  and  St.  Louis  ;  on  the  Illinois  ;  mouth  of  Mis- 
souri ;    Cahokia ;    mouth  of  Ohio ;   Kaskaskia ;  Vin- 
cennes ;    mouth  of   Wabash,   and  mouth    of   Scioto. 
Occasionally  a  stray  Englishman  had  crept  over  the 
Alleghanies  and  caught  a  prospect  of  the  rich  fields 
1* 


6  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

beyond ;  but  until  1749  no  general  efforts  were  made 
by  their  sovereign,  or  his  authorized  agents,  to  occupy- 
that  country. 

The  charters  of  the  colonies  were  broad  enough, 
to  be  sure,  and  covered  the  Frenchman  completely 
with  a  paper  title.  But  the  grant  of  a  king  three  thou- 
sand miles  off,  or  even  the  treaties  of  the  six  nations 
between  1684  and  1744,  were  little  cared  for  by  him. 
France  had  actual  possession  from  Quebec  to  New  Or- 
leans ;  her  citizens,  her  troops,  her  traders  and  mis- 
sionaries threaded  the  woods  and  the  streams  of  the 
C.tnadas  and  the  Western  States,  from  St.  Lawrence 
to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Not  a  moment  since  this 
occupation  commenced,  to  this  hour,  has  the  West 
ceased  to  be  a  place  of  interest.  There  are  all  the 
travels  of  Marquette,  La  Salle  and  their  confederates, 
the  dangers  of  the  little  establishments  called  forts, 
the  hardships  of  artisans  and  farmers  who  clustered 
about  them  for  protection,  Indian  kindnesses,  murders 
and  jealousies,  upon  which  our  citizens  are  still  mainly 
uninformed.  Then  comes  the  enlargement  of  Gallic 
power  and  influence,  till  the  British  crown  becomes 
y,  the  efforts  of  the  two  powers  to  join  the  occu- 
pants of  the  soil  to  each  party,  both  of  whom  were 
intent  upon  the  destruction  of  their  allies,  the  warning 
and  suspicion  of  the  Indian,  the  severe  wars  of  the 
two  rival  nations  upon  a  ground  to  which  neither  had 
a  complete  title,  the  success  of  British  arms,  and  a 
thousand  reminiscences  of  the  past,  belong  to  the 
territory  we  inhabit. 

In  1756  came  the  contest  of  arms  along  a  frontier 
line,  which  then  lay  within  the  present  limits  of  Penn- 
sylvania, New  York  and  the  New  England  States. 
This  decided,  ere  long  we  read  of  the  exp< 
'Col.  Lewis  and  Lord  Dunmore,  west  of  the  CWao,  in 
1774,    wherein    the    colonies    fought    the    aborigines 


HISTORICAL   TRANSACTIONS.  7 

under  the  English  rule ;  and  soon  we  find  the  same 
troops  engaged  against  the  same  foes,  enlisted  in  the 
British  ranks.  Of  the  period  between  the  domination 
of  France  and  the  close  of  the  American  Revolution, 
we  have  but  little  more  knowledge  than  of  the  prece- 
ding. The  line  between  historical  light  and  darkness 
must  be  drawn  near  the  date  of  the  year  1783. 

Are  the  exploits  of  the  previous  one  hundred 
years  unworthy  of  remembrance  ?  We  care  not 
whether  it  is  the  record  of  the  deeds  of  the  French- 
man or  the  Englishman,  the  white  or  the  red  brother. 
These  national  distinctions  do  not  impair  our  desire  to 
know  of  their  daring  actions,  nor  personal  antipathies 
prevent  our  admiration  of  their  bravery  and  their  en- 
terprise. And  can  it  be  truly  said,  that  the  West  is 
barren  of  materials  for  substantial  history  ?  Ohio 
does  not  embrace  all  the  ground  on  which  these  inter- 
esting things  occurred ;  but  prior  to  the  occupation 
of  Marietta,  in  1788,  the  progress  of  events,  beyond 
the  Alleghanies,  was  so  connected  with  our  territory, 
that  without  the  whole  any  story  would  be  incom- 
plete. 

As  usual,  the  subject  seems  to  attract  more  atten- 
tion abroad  than  at  home.  The  North  American 
Review  (Boston)  has  of  late  thrown  open  to  our  view 
many  hidden  sources  of  information,  which  it  becomes 
us  to  turn  to  account.  In  the  annual  address  of  J. 
H.  Perkins,  Esq.,  1838,  it  is  stated  that  the  manu- 
script journal  of  the  first  (or  English)  "  Ohio  Com- 
pany," organized  in  1748,  is  in  existence,  and  in 
possession  of  the  Hon.  Charles  F.  Mercer,  of  Virginia. 
The  author  of  the  articles  upon  the  French  and  En- 
glish discoveries  in  the  West,  attaches  in  a  note  full 
references  to  his  authorities,  some  of  which  we  name : 
— Meraoirea  Ilistoriques  Sur  Louisianie,  Paris,  1753, 
Present    State    of  North    America,    London,    1755. 


8  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

Pownall's   Memorial,  or  Service  in  North  America, 

1756,  London.     The   Contest  in   America,   London, 

1757.  Boquet's  Expedition,  London,  1776.  Charle- 
voix, La  Hontan,  Hennepin,  Tonti,  etc.,  Paris,  prior 
to  1744.  Plain  Facts,  etc.,  Philadelphia,  1781. 
Major  Roger's  Journal,  and  Concise  Account,  etc., 
London,  1765.  Mr.  Sparks,  in  the  Life  and  Corres- 
pondence of  Washington  and  Franklin,  has  performed 
the  highest  service  to  the  cause  of  Western  annals. 
His  opportunity  was  a  fortunate  one,  having  access  to 
volumes  of  old  magazine  manuscripts,  and  to  public 
records  in  America,  France  and  England. 

Of  the  above  works,  some  may  be  had  in  this 
country,  and  the  remainder  abroad,  without  incurring 
a  very  heavy  expense.  The  papers  relating  to  the 
Symmes'  Purchase  we  said  to  be  in  existence.  Those 
of  the  second  "Ohio  Company"  are  at  Marietta,  and 
the  Connecticut  Land  Company  at  Hartford.  Is  not 
the  collection  of  these  precious  relics  of  the  early  day 
a  proper  duty  of  the  Historical  Society  of  Ohio  ? 

The  narrative  of  Judge  Burnet,  which  occupies  one 
hundred  and  eighty  pages  of  this  part  of  the  first 
volume,  is  of  high  interest.  Since  1796,  this  astute 
ami  venerable  man  has  lived  in  the  city  of  Cincinnati, 
leuteness  of  observation,  tenacity  of  memory,  and 
the  practice  of  taking  occasional  notes,  in  connection 
with  the  fact  of  his  long  standing  at  the  bar,  and  al- 
most continual  exercise  of  some  public  trust,  munici- 
pal, legislative,  or  judicial,  must  give  unusual  value  to 
these  letters.  Nothing  could  be  more  appropriate, 
both  to  the  society  and  the  individual.  The  Latter 
has  fulfilled  a  pleasing  duty  to  the  community  through 
the  proper  channel ;  its  execution,  also,  may  be  Baid 
to  be  equally  happy  with  the  other  circumsta 
The  habits,  manners,  ami  weaknesses  of  the  ptOIfc 
are  set  forth  with  life  and  interest;  and  substantial  mat- 


HISTORICAL   TRANSACTIONS. 


ters  relating  to  legislation,  the  organization  and  the 
progress  of  government,  agreeably  interspersed  with 
anecdote  and  recital.  We  shall  give  the  substance  of 
some  of  the  most  characteristic  passages.  His  ac- 
quaintance with  the  military  of  the  West  was  of  course 
intimate,  of  whom  it  is  said,  page  12,  a  The  vices  of 
idleness,  drinking,  and  gambling,  were  carried  to  a 
greater  extent  in  the  army  at  that  time  .than  at  any 
period  since.  A  very  large  proportion  of  the  officers 
of  General  Wayne's  army  were  hard  drinkers,  Gen- 
eral Harrison,  Governor  Clark,  Colonel  Shornberg, 
and  a  few  others,  being  the  only  exceptions."  These 
lamentable  consequences  are  attributed  to  the  absence 
of  libraries,  of  men  of  refined  taste  and  learning  with 
whom  to  associate,  yet  more  particularly  to  the  want 
of  accomplished  female  society.  Since  that  period, 
much  improvement  has  been  observed  in  the  moral 
character  of  our  frontier  posts.  Education,  a  strong 
barrier  to  dissipation,  has  become  universal  among  the 
commissioned  officers  ;  libraries  are  provided  at  al- 
most every  station,  and  the  devoted  wife  accompanies 
her  husband  to  those  remote  and  forgotten  spots,  far 
up  the  Mississippi,  the  Missouri,  and  the  Arkansas,  to 
enliven  the  loneliness  of  his  retreat. 

Judge  Burnet's  opinion  of  the  French  traveller, 
Volney,  who  spent  some  time  in  Cincinnati  and  vicin- 
ity, in  the  fall  of  1796,  did  not  seem  to  be  very  ex- 
alted. "  He  was  retiring,  unsociable,  and  unusually 
credulous.  Some  officers,  who  travelled  with  him  from 
this  place  to  Detroit,  availed  themselves  of  this  weak- 
ness, much  to  their  amusement.  One  of  the  results 
of  this  play  upon  his  weakness  (no  small  thing  in  a 
traveller)  was  a  conviction  that  the  Ohio  river  in  floods 
had  been  known  to  set  back  to  the  foot  of  the  rapids, 
in  a  creek  near  Fort  Greenville,  now  Greenville  Court 
House,  in  Darke   county,  a  point  two  hundred  and 


10  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

twenty-two  foot  above  Lake  Erie,  and  three  hundred 
and  fifty-five  feet  higher  than  the  river  at  Cincinnati." 
Next  follows  a  succinct  account  of  the  lir»t  legisla- 
tive and  judicial  system  of  the  North-western- terri- 
tory. Of  this  too  much  is  known  to  need  remark, 
being  a  system  more  thoroughly  anti-republican  than 
military  rule  itself.  A  just  tribute  is  rendered  to  the 
memory  of  General  Rufus  Putnam  of  Marietta.  A 
fine  illustration  of  the  phrase,  "  great  effects  flow  from 
small  causes,"  is  recorded  on  page  17,  in  relation  to 
the  establishment  of  the  city  of  Cincinnati.  North 
Bend  was  the  ground  selected  and  surveyed  for  the 
town  of  the  Symmes'  Purchase,  by  the  proprietor.  It 
lies  at  the  neck  of  the  peninsula,  between  the  great 
Miami  and  the  Ohio.  It  appears  in  every  view  to 
have  been  a  good  location,  and  the  present  passage 
of  this  neck  by  a  tunnel  of  the  Whitewater  canal,  and 
the  construction  of  this  work  thence  twenty  miles  up 
stream,  along  the  margin  of  the  Ohio  to  reach  Cin- 
cinnati, is  evidence  of  the  good  judgment  of  Judge 
Symmes.  The  city  of  North  Bend  was  laid  out,  and 
the  troops  from  Fort  Harmar  landed  at  the  place,  for 
the  purpose  of  erecting  works.  The  commanding 
officer,  somehow,  became  enamored  of  a  black-eyed 
female,  who,  however,  had  ■  hsttband  on  the  spot.  To 
avoid  consequences,  the  discreet  lord  removed  to  Cin- 
cinnati, taking  the  bright  eyes  of  his  wife  along,  which 
placed  a  half  day's  journey  between  them  and  the 
epaulets  of  the  officer.  The  latter  soon  found  the 
position  of  North  Bend  too  weak  for  successful  de- 
fence, and  determined  to  reconnoitre  the  neighborhood 
of  Cincinnati.  The  retail  wai  a  confirmed  opinion 
that  the  site  of  Fort  Washington,  somewhere  in  the 
vicinity  of  Mrs.  Trollope'e  folly,  on  Third  street,  was 

a  Stronger  military  point    than    the  heights  of  the  pe- 
ninsula  at  North  Bend,   and  the   forces   were   trans- 


HISTORICAL   TRANSACTIONS.  11 

ferred  thither.  Protection  thus  withdrawn  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Miami,  its  fate  was  sealed,  and  the  des- 
tiny of  the  Queen  City  settled  in  a  manner  that, 
without  the  evidence  before  us,  would  have  been  con- 
sidered fabulous. 

As  usual,  in  early  settlements,  one  of  Judge 
Lynch's  courts  of  final  jurisdiction  was  established  in 
the  colony.  Patrick  Grimes  paid  the  penalty  of  the 
law  provided  for  the  case  of  stealing  cucumbers,  by 
receiving  twenty-nine  lashes  on  the  naked  back.  But 
at  the  next  sitting  of  the  judge,  the  culprit  disregard- 
ing process,  fled  to  the  garrison. 

Mr.  McMillan,  who  personated  Judge  Lynch,  was 
next  called  upon,  by  a  sergeant  and  two  men,  to  attend 
upon  the  commandant  of  the  fort.  A  pitched  battle 
followed,  lasting  about  twenty  minutes,  in  which  there 
were  none  killed  on  the  spot ;  but  four  (all  present) 
were  seriously  wounded.  A  Court  of  Quarter  Sessions 
was  soon  organized.  "  In  my  early  intercourse  with 
the  officers  of  General  Wayne's  army,  I  could  not  but 
feel  surprised  at  the  levity  and  calm  indifference  with 
which  they  spoke  of  exposures  and  hair-breadth  es- 
capes. I  was  certain  that  this  did  not  proceed  from 
any  want  of  natural  tenderness  or  sympathy.  It 
seems  to  be  a  beneficent  provision  of  nature,  that  men, 
who  are  timid,  sensitive  to  danger,  and  disposed  to 
sympathy,  would  cease  to  be  influenced  by  such  feel- 
ings, when  duty  brings  them  into  scenes  of  peril  and 
cruelty." 

The  difficulty  between  General  Wilkinson  and 
General  Wayne  was  a  cause  of  much  disagreeable 
feeling  in  the  army  at  the  time,  and  each  party  had 
strong  partisans.  General  Wilkinson  went  so  far  as 
to  prefer  charges  against  his  Commander-in-Chitf, 
and  omitted  few  opportunities  of  degrading  him  with 
his  officers.     This  notorious  person  is  represented  as  a 


12  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

most  fascinating  and  polished  individual,  calculated  to 
attract  friends  to  himself,  and  any  cause  he  chose  to 
advocate.  Gen.  Wayne's  death  on  Lake  Erie  saved 
this  agitator  the  ignominy  of  a  defeat  upon  his  own 
charges.  A  strong  example  of  the  exaltation  of  mili- 
tary feeling  is  related  of  Major  Guion,  the  most  un- 
compromising enemy  of  the  General.  News  came  of 
his  decease.  "What!"  says  he,  " General  Ways* 
(lend  !  dead  !  then  let  enmity  die  with  him." 

We  pass  over  much  interesting  matter  to  notice  a 
statement  of  the  author  relative  to  some  curious  fossil 
stumps,  or  roots  of  trees,  found  beneath  the  surface,  at 
Cincinnati.  And  to  give  our  eastern  friends  a  speci- 
men of  the  veracity  of  writers  and  travellers,  we  in- 
sert the  account  given  by  Mr.  Priest,  in  his  "  discov- 
eries in  the  West,"  page  130.  "In  1826,  more  than 
eighty  feet  under  ground,  there  was  found,  on  the 
banks  of  the  Ohio  (Cincinnati),  the  stump  of  a  tree, 
three  feet  in  diameter,  and  ten  feet  high,  cut  down 
with  an  axe,  the  blows  of  which  are  yet  visible."  The 
deductions  of  the  author  are,  first,  that  it  was  ante- 
diluvian. Second,  that  the  Ohio  river  did  not  exist 
before  the  flood.  Third,  America  was  peopled  before 
the  flood.  Fourth,  The  antediluvian  Americans  knew 
the  use  of  iron.  Hear  Judge  Burnet  upon  the  facts 
of  the  case ;  the  inferences  we  leave  to  take  care  of 
themselves. 

"  The  facts  are  simply  these:  in  sinking  a  well  in 
1802,  at  the  depth  of  ninety-three  feet,  I  found  two 
.stumps,  one  about  one  foot,  and  the  other  eighteen 
inches  in  diameter,  standing  in  the  position  in  which 
they  grew.  Their  roots  were  sound,  and  extended 
from  them  horizontally  on  every  side.  The  tops  were 
so  decayed  and  mouldered  that  no  opinion  could  be 
formed  of  the  process  by  which  the  trunks  had  been 
severed  from  the  bodies." 


HISTORICAL   TRANSACTIONS.  13 

It  is  well  known  that  the  British  did  not  fully  ex- 
ecute the  treaty  of  1783,  until  the  year  1796.  They 
retained  Mackinaw,  Detroit,  and  Maumee,  till  after 
Wayne's  victory  over  the  Indians,  at  the  Rapids,  in 
1794 ;  and  without  the  expedition,  and  the  success 
which  followed,  resulting  in  the  treaty  of  Greenville, 
it  is  doubtful  when  possession  of  those  posts  would 
have  been  given  to  us.  The  North-western  Territory 
was  divided  into  four  counties,  prior  to  the  surrender, 
and  their  respective  capitals  were,  Kaskaskia,  Vin- 
cennes,  Cincinnati,  and  Marietta. 

The  county  of  Wayne  was  erected  soon  after  the 
delivery  of  Detroit,  and  the  latter  place  became  the 
seat  of  justice.  Lawyers  from  Cincinnati  practised 
at  Marietta  and  Detroit,  and  sometimes  at  Vincennes. 
This  circuit  of  the  first  three  counties  was  regularly 
made  by  Judge  Burnet,  and  his  brethren  of  the  bar, 
till  1803.  A  graphic  description  of  the  customs  of 
Detroit  will  be  found  on  page  50,  quite  equal  to  the 
style  and  manner  of  Washington  Irving's  Sketch  of 
the  Mackinaw  Fur  Traders.  "Like  men  disposed  to 
enjoy  life,  while  it  might  be  in  their  power  to  do  so, 
they  provided  in  great  abundance  the  delicacies  and 
luxuries  of  every  climate,  and  as  often  as  they  re- 
turned from  the  cold  regions  of  the  North  and  West, 
to  their  families  and  comfortable  homes,  they  did  not 
spare  them.  No  genteel  stranger  visited  the  place 
without  an  invitation  to  their  houses,  and  their  sump- 
tuous tables ;  and,  what  is  remarkable,  they  competed 
with  each  other  for  the  honor  of  drinking  the  most 
and  best  wine,  without  being  intoxicated  themselves; 
and  of  having  the  greatest  number  of  intoxicated 
guests."  It  appears  that  most  of  the  British  mer- 
chants of  Detroit  eventually  crossed  over  to  Sandwich 
and  established  themselves  in  business;  but  a  friendly 
intercourse  was  continued.  As  evidence  of  this  feel- 
2 


14  FUGITIVE  ESSAYS. 

ing,  we  have  a  full  account  in  the  celebration  of  the 
king's  birth-day,  in  which  the  Americans  joined.  Af- 
terwards, the  members  of  the  bar  fulfilled  an  engage- 
ment, contracted  on  the  spot,  to  spend  a  day  and  night 
at  Maiden.  On  these  occasions,  the  English  fashion 
of  crowding  wine  upon  their  guests  in  profusion  was 
not  forgotten,  and  we  are  told  that  "although  more 
Mine  was  drank"  than  the  writer  had  ever  witnessed 
at  such  times,  no  animosity  or  bad  feeling  was  exci- 
ted. The  British  extolled  George  III.  to  their  hearts' 
content ;  the  President  of  the  United  States  came  next 
in  order,  and  his  name  occasioned  as  copious  draughts 
upon  the  tumbler  as  the  king's.  We  know  of  a  much 
stronger  case  of  personal  comity,  which  occurred  du- 
ring the  last  war,  on  the  Ontario  frontier,  though  it 
ftraa  with  some  difficulty  the  British  officers  persuaded 
themselves  to  swallow  the  compliment.  Major  Lo- 
lnax  had  been  sent  from  Sackett's  Harbor,  or  that  vi- 
cinity, to  the  British  Head  Quarters  in  Canada,  with 
a  flag.  They  received  him  very  hospitably,  but  as  a 
precaution,  kept  him  very  close,  perhaps  not  more  so 
than  usual  in  such  cases.  The  dinner  and  wine  fol- 
lowed, of  course,  and  with  them  abundance  of  toasts. 
An  English  officer,  rather  mellow  with  port,  gave, 
President  Madison,  dead  or  alive."  Major  Lomax 
felt  called  upon  to  reply,  and  offered  the  health  of 
the  Prince  Jiegcnt,  "(trunk  or  sober." 

Judge  Burnet's  relation  of  the  incidents  of  these 
journeys,  from  one  court-house  to  another,  three  hun- 
dred miles  distant,  through  a  trackless  forest,  is  often 
intensely  interesting ;  but  the  reader  must  look  to  the 
work  itself,  we  can  retail  but  one.  It  would  seem 
that  Mr.  St.  Clair,  son  of  Gen.  St.  Clair,  the  Gover- 
nor ami  warrior,  either  through  the  influence  of  per- 
sonal appearance,  or  official  relationship,  wui  much 
more   caressed  by  the  squaws  of  an  Indian  village, 


HISTORICAL    TRANSACTIONS.  15 

where  they  stopped,  than  the  author.  "An  old 
wrinkle-faced  squaw  was  extremely  officious ;  her  at- 
tentions, however,  were  principally  confined  to  Mr. 
St.  Clair ;  she  kissed  him  once  or  twice,  exclaiming, 
you  big  man,  Governor  Son,  and  turning  to  us,  said, 
with  some  disdain,  you  m&wh~" 

A  just  tribute  is  paid  to  the  character  of  General 
George  Rogers  Clarke,  of  Kentucky.  "When  I  was 
induced  to  visit  him  by  the  veneration  I  felt  for  his 
talents  and  services,  his  health  was  much  impaired  by 
intemperance,  but  his  majestic  and  dignified  deport- 
ment, and  strong  features,  bore  the  impress  of  an  in- 
telligent and  resolute  mind,  and  immediately  brought 
to  my  recollection  the  personal  appearance  of  Wash- 
ington, to  which  it  seemed  to  approximate." 

In  1798,  the  North-western  Territory  contained 
five  thousand  inhabitants,  and  of  right  proceeded  to 
establish  the  second  grade  of  government.  Of  the 
legislative  council  of  five,  provided  as  advisers  of  the 
Governor,  Judge  Burnet  was  one  during  the  continu- 
ances of  this  form  of  administration,  or  till  1803. 
Many  of  the  early  laws  appear  to  have  been  drawn 
by  him.  The  election  of  William  Henry  Harrison,  as 
first  Territorial  Delegate  to  Congress,  took  place  Oc- 
tober 3d,  1799,  by  a  majority  of  one  vote.  The  next 
session  of  the  legislature  took  place  at  Chillicothe, 
November  3d,  1800.  During  the  sitting  of  the  sec- 
ond General  Assembly,  a  mob  came  together  for  the 
purpose  of  annoying  the  Governor  (St.  Clair),  who 
seems  to  have  been  unpopular.  This  assemblage  was 
renewed  on  a  second  night,  and  in  consequence  a  law 
was  passed  restoring  the  seat  of  government  to  Cin- 
cinnati. 

There  are  many  points  connected  with  the  origin 
of  our  present  government  and  constitution,  not 
satisfactory  to  the  author.     He  seems  to  consider  the 


16  FUGITIVE     ESSAYS. 

application  for  admission  into  the  Union,  before  we 
attained  a  population  of  sixty  thousand,  and  when,  as 
a  matter  of  right  under  the  ordinance,  we  should  have 
taken  a  stand  upon  the  footing  of  the  old  States,  as 
the  cause  of  many  evils.  As  it  was  in  the  power  of 
Congress  to  grant  or  refuse  the  request,  they  imposed 
upon  us  terms  which  he  considers  unjust.  In  a  sub- 
sequent address  to  the  Society,  this  subject  is  ampli- 
fied, and  fully  discussed.  The  principal  objection  is 
the  relinquishment  of  the  right  of  taxation  on  govern- 
ment lands,  and  for  a  period  of  five  years  after  sale. 
The  steps  required  by  the  ordinance  and  republican 
usage  to  compose  a  constitution  were  not  followed, 
and  the  proceeding  is  considered  illegal.  It  never 
came  before  the  people,  and  the  convention  which 
framed  it  was  ordered  by  Congress,  and  not  the  peo- 
ple, and  so  constituted  as  to  make  the  instrument 
binding  when  completed  by  them. 

Of  Governor  St.  Clair,  a  few  words  must  suffice, 
"lie  was  plain  and  simple  in  his  dress  and  equipage, 
frank  and  open  iQ  his  manners,  and  accessible  to  per- 
sons of  any  rank.  IJe  retained  a  large  share  of  pop- 
ular favor  till  the  close  of  the  first  session  of  the  leg- 
islature. Soon  after  that  body  commenced  its  legis- 
1m tive  functions,  he  exhibited  a  disposition  to  extend 
his  power.  The  construction  he  gave  to  the  ordinance 
was  such  as  confined  the  will  of  the  legislature  within 
very  narrow  limits." 

The  ordinance  giving  him  an  unqualified  reto,  he 
considered  himself  as  authorized  and  required  to  de- 
cide upon  the  expediency  of  all  their  acts.  Of  thirty 
bills,  eleven  were  cut  off"  in  this  way.  This  accidental 
state  of  things,  occurring  when  the  convention  were 
-sion,  is  thought  to  be  the  cause  of  their  stripping 
the  Executive  of  almost  every  respectable  power,  by 
the  terms  of  tin-  constitution. 


HISTORICAL    TRANSACTIONS.  17 

"  St.  Clair  was  a  man  of  superior  talents,  exten- 
sive information,  and  great  uprightness  of  purpose. 
The  course  he  pursued,  though  destruction  to  his  own 
popularity,  was  the  result  of  an  honest  exercise  of 
judgment." 

The  object  in  examining  a  work  of  this  kind  is 
not  so  much  to  present  the  contents,  or  even  its  sub- 
stance, as  to  carry  a  general  idea  of  its  merits,  and 
if  worthy  of  attention  to  induce  its  perusal. 

We  find  it  necessary,  to  avoid  extreme  length,  in 
this  instance,  to  pass  by  much  important  matter,  and 
for  the  remainder  merely  touch  at  occasional  points. 

We  are  told,  page  90,  that  Ohio  led  the  way,  in 
hallowing  that  memorable  day,  the  anniversary  of  the 
Declaration,  by  recognizing  the  free  enjoyment  of  per- 
sonal liberty,  through  all  its  sacred  forms,  except  in 
certain  cases  of  crime. 

Page  100  has  an  address  of  the  legislature  of 
1799,  to  John  Adams,  President  of  the  United  States, 
embracing  terms  of  strong  compliment.  The  ex- 
planatory note  discloses  an  important  proposition, 
made  to  our  commissioners  at  the  treaty  of  Paris, 
1782,  not  generally  known. 

The  Ohio  and  Mississippi  were  insisted  upon  as  our 
western  boundary. 

Dr.  Franklin  listened  to  the  proposition,  the 
Count  de  Vergennes  favored  it,  and  Mr.  Adams  at 
first  stood  alone  in  opposition  to  the  measure,  threat- 
ening to  retire  from  the  negociation.  Mr.  Jay  soon 
sided  with  Mr.  Adams,  and  Eranklin  finally  con- 
curred. 

The  history  of  some  of  the  members  of  that  legis- 
lature (1799)  is  given  in  brief.  Judge  Sibley  of 
Detroit,  Gen.  Darlington  of  West  Union,  and  Judge 
Burnet,  are  the  only  survivors.  The  most  extended 
biographical  notice  is  that  of  John  Smith,  afterward* 
2* 


18  FUGITIVE     ESSAYS. 

a  Senator  in  Congress,  and  finally  implicated  with 
Burr  in  his  supposed  conspiracy.  Mr.  Smith  stated 
to  the  author,  that  his  journey  to  Florida  and  Louisi- 
ana in  180(5,  was,  by  private  request  of  Mr.  Jefferson, 
to  ascertain  the  feeling  of  the  Spanish  citizens  and 
officers,  in  reference  to  the  expected  war  with  Spain. 
The  prosecutions  of  the  Government  against  him,  in 
the  next  year,  however,  brought  him  to  ruin. 

In  selecting  members  of  the  legislature  in  those 
days,  "  party  influence  was  scarcely  felt,  and  I  can 
say  with  confidence,  that  since  the  establishment  of 
the  State  Government,  I  have  not  seen  a  legislature 
containing  such  a  large  proportion  of  aged,  intelligent, 
and  discreet  men."  Pursuing  the  history  of  the  forma- 
tion of  our  State  Government,  we  find,  page  112,  the 
reason  of  that  novelty  in  judicature,  a  travelling  court  of 
dernier  resort.  The  members  of  the  convention  could 
not  decide  upon  the  county  or  town  in  which  the  Su- 
preme Court  should  be  fixed,  and  to  satisfy  all  sent  them 
on  horseback  to  every  county  in  the  State  once  a  year. 

Letter  V,  containing  twenty-five  pages,  is  mostly 
taken  up  with  a  novel  discussion  upon  the  right  of  the 
State  to  tax  Congress  lands.  The  author  belonged  to 
the  minority  upon  the  question  of  erecting  a  State 
Government,  at  the  period  of  1802,  and  still  conceives 
that  the  people  lost  much  by  the  terms  of  that  ad- 
mission. The  excitement  of  those  times  upon  this 
question  was  equal  to  that  of  any  subsequent  period, 
and  the  victors  then,  as  now,  exulted  over  their  suc- 
cess. The  remembrance  of  the  strife  of  the  occasion 
is  not  wholly  effaced  from  the  mind  of  the  writer,  who 
still  expresses  himself  with  some  feeling.  But  it  would 
be  difficult  to  answer  the  argument  advanced  in  sup- 
port of  our  right  to  taxation  over  unsold  government 
lands.  It  seems  to  be  quite  clear,  that  unless  tin 
terms  of  the  relinquishment  of  the  tax  upon  the 


HISTORICAL     TRANSACTIONS.  19 

of  Congress  lands,  for  the  space  of  five  years,  in- 
cludes the  assent  to  relinquishment,  or  implies  an  ac- 
knowledgment of  the  non-existence  of  the  tax  right, 
the  power  is  still  vested  in  the  State. 

The  seventh  and  last  letter  is  occupied  with  des- 
ultory recollections  of  a  highly  instructive  cast. 

The  project  of  constructing  a  canal  around  the 
Falls  of  the  Ohio,  on  the  Indiana  side,  was  attempted, 
and  some  advance  made  towards  its  completion  in 
1817-18.  In  August,  1819,  the  river  is  stated  to 
have  been  so  low  that  its  whole  breadth  at  the  Falls 
was  only  twenty-four  feet,  the  water  passing  through 
a  deep  channel  like  a  canal,  with  a  division  of  rock 
in  the  center,  and  extending  one-third  of  the  length 
of  the  rapids.  The  old  system  of  government  sales 
upon  credit,  is  shown  to  have  threatened  the  ruin  of 
western  settlers;  there  being,  in  1821,  twenty-two 
millions  of  dollars  due  the  G-overnment,  and  an  al- 
most entire  inability  to  meet  it.  The  plan  of  allowing 
a  relinquishment  of  the  unpaid  portions  of  the  land 
in  certain  cases  (proposed  by  Judge  Burnet)  finally 
prevailed  in  Congress,  and  the  West  was  relieved.  A 
short  history  of  the  canal  donations  of  the  General 
Government,  and  a  brief  notice  of  Simon  Kenton, 
brings  us  to  the  close  of  these  invaluable  essays. 

Taking  so  conspicuous  a  part  as  the  author  did  in 
the  doings  of  the  Territory  and  the  State,  much  that 
is  personal  necessarily  occurs  in  the  narration,  but 
this  is  not  the  least  interesting  portion  of  its  matter. 
We  must  pass  over  the  remainder  of  the  book,  not  of 
an  historical  character,  and  confine  ourselves  to  those 
which  are.  The  discourse  of  General  Harrison  upon 
the  aboriginies  of  the  valley  of  the  Ohio  occupies 
fifty-seven  pages.  In  this  case  we  are  equally  fortu- 
nate, in  the  fitness  of  the  individual  who  undertakes 
to  enlighten  us.     No  person  living  has  had  as  thor- 


20  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

ough  acquaintance  with  the  North-western  Indians,  as 
the  gentleman  whose  name  is  just  written.  As  a  citi- 
zen and  officer,  in  war  and  in  peace,  as  a  guest  or  a 
governor,  in  all  conditions  and  circumstances,  he  has 
observed  their  anomalous  character. 

A  portion  of  the  discourse  is  taken  up  with  a  ref- 
erence to  the  ancient  race  once  occupying  our  valley 
in  immense  numbers,  and  whose  habitations  and  tem- 
ples still  remain.  Gen.  Harrison  supposes  them  to 
have  been  strictly  agricultural ;  and  most  of  these 
constructions  dedicated  to  residence  and  religion  ;  that 
the  works  on  the  river  Ohio  were  of  a  different  char- 
acter, and  were  the  result  of  necessity,  intended  aa 
defences  against  a  concerted  invasion,  from  both  the 
north  and  south,  and  that  here  they  made  resistance ; 
but  gradually  retired  down  the  river  under  defeat, 
making  the  last  stand  at  a  strong  point  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Great  Miami.  Of  all  speculations  upon 
the  design  of  these  works,  none  are  satisfactory  to  us, 
and  none  less  so  than  those  which  give  to  them  a  mili- 
tary object.  When  a  full  collection  and  description 
of  those  interesting  remains  is  obtained,  perhaps  some 
rational  theory  may  be  formed.  At  present,  we  have 
merely  light  enough  to  produce  confusion.  It  would 
be  easy  to  occupy  several  pages  with  reasons  against 
the  defensive  character  of  these  works,  applicable  as 
well  to  those  on  the  Ohio,  as  elsewhere.* 

But  we  hasten  to  consider  the  main  discussion  of 
this  pamphlet ;  being  the  early  history  of  the  Indian 
occupants  of  Ohio,  at  the  commencement  of  the  white 
settlements ;  an  occurrence  which,  it  is  worth  remark, 
took  place  much  later  here  than  in  the  newer  States 
west  of  us.  They  were  composed  of  the  Wyandots, 
Mia  mis,  Shawanees,  Delawares,  a  remnant  of  the  Mo- 

*  See  "Monuments  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,"  by  K.  (3  Squier 
and  E.  11.  Davis. — Smithsonian  Contributions,  vol.  i.  lb-itf. 


HISTORICAL   TRANSACTIONS.  21 

liijrans  connected  with  the  Delawares,  and  a  band  of 
Otto  was. 

Although  the  Six  Nations  claimed  the  north-east- 
ern portion  of  this  State,  but  few,  if  any,  resided 
there.  It  is  and  has  been  disputed,  whether  the  Six 
Nations  ever  conquered  or  occupied  the  country  wa- 
tered by  the  Scioto  and  Great  Miami.  Gen.  Harrison 
says,  their  eastern  boundary  was  certainly  east  of  the 
Scioto,  when  the  whites  came  to  this  country.  Frank- 
lin, Clinton,  and  Colden,  assert,  and  endeavor  to  prove, 
that  the  Iroquois  once  conquered  and  colonized  even 
to  the  Mississippi.  The  English  claim  to  the  territory 
north-west  of  the  Ohio,  as  opposed  to  the  French, 
rests  upon  a  grant  of  the  Six  Nations,  as  early  as 
1684.  A  profound  antiquary,  in  an  article  upon  the 
English  discoveries  in  the  West,  North  American  Re- 
view, July  1839,  concurs  with  the  statements  of  De 
Witt  Clinton  and  others,  that  they  had,  prior  to  1680, 
overrun  most  of  the  modern  north-western  Territory. 
Gen.  Harrison  opposes  this  opinion,  and  does  not  admit 
that  they  ever  possessed  lands  west  of  the  Scioto.  It 
is  an  interesting  examination,  beyond  our  limits  to 
transcribe.  We  merely  improve  the  opportunity  to 
add  an  item  of  evidence  in  favor  of  Gen.  Harrison's 
belief.  In  1796,  when  the  agents  of  the  Connecticut 
Land  Company  proceeded  to  make  surveys  of  the 
Western  Reserve,  the  Indian  title  was  not  fully  se- 
cured. Gen.  Cleveland  held  a  council  with  the  Six 
Nations,  or  a  part  of  them  at  Buffalo,  for  the  purpose 
of  taking  quiet  possession.  At  this  time  they  claimed 
nothing  beyond  the  Cuyahoga  and  Tuscorora  rivers, 
and  the  "  old  Portage  path,"  or  Portage,  connecting 
these  streams  across  the  Akron  summit.  They  con- 
sidered this  line  as  the  boundary  between  them  and 
the  western  Indians,  and  gave  no  rights  beyond  the 
Cuyahoga.     These  streams  and  the  old  Portage  path 


22  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

were  used  in  common  by  the  Indians  on  both  sides, 
for  transportation,  of  which  so  much  took  place,  that 
the  trail  or  path,  from  one  to  the  other,  is  still  visible. 
The  company  took  possession  of  the  land  east  of  the 
agreed  boundary,  and  surveyed  to  it ;  the  Indians  on 
the  west  of  it  occupying  their  side,  and  not  molesting 
the  occupation  of  the  whites.  It  was  not  until  1806 
that  the  Land  Company,  or  Congress,  obtained  full 
possession  from  the  Indians  of  the  western  shore  of 
the  Cuyahoga. 

The  discourse  locates  the  different  tribes  at  about 
1650,  as  follows :  the  Iroquois  confederacy  remained 
in  their  original  position  between  Labrador  and  the 
Delaware,  or  great  Lenape  nation,  whose  northern 
limit  was  somewhere  in  southern  Pennsylvania.  The 
Wvandots  or  Hurons  occupied  both  shores  of  western 
Lake  Erie,  and  extended  southward  to  the  Ohio.  The 
Miami  confederacy,  the  most  powerful  of  the  Indian 
combinations,  lay  along  the  Ohio,  from  the  Scioto 
westward,  around  Lake  Michigan  to  the  Mississippi. 

The  Iroquois  fought  and  conquered  the  Delawares 
on  the  south,  took  possession  of  their  land,  and  forced 
them  to  assume  the  name  of  women.  Some  time 
during  the  seventeenth  century,  those  warlike  and 
generous  tribes  moved  upon  the  Wvandots,  and  de- 
feated them.  This  battle  is  said  to  have  been  fought 
in  canoes,  upon  the  waters  of  Lake  Erie,  and  great 
fatality  resulted.  The  Wvandots  withdrew  Westward 
for  a  time,  but  returned  again  in  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, when  it  is  probable  the  Cuyahoga  was  mutually 
agreed  upon  as  their  eastern  border. 

The  Miamis,  possessing  most  of  western  Ohio,  are 

thought  never  to  have  been  at  war  with  the  Six  Na- 

.  or  at  least  never  to  have  been  conquered  by 

th  ini.    With  the  Cherokees  and  Chicksaawa  they  were 

at  war.     Gen.  Harrison  considers  Sandusky  as 


HISTORICAL  TRANSACTIONS.  23 

the  western  limit  of  occupation  by  the  Iroquois,  and 
that  possession  a  temporary  one.  The  Shawanese  In- 
dians were  emigrants  from  Georgia  and  Florida,  within 
an  hundred  years.  They  first  came  to  the  country  of 
the  Miamis,  low  down  on  the  Ohio,  and  afterwards 
moved  to  the  Scioto.  Black  Hoof,  their  chief,  died  not 
long  since,  and  he  was  born  in  Florida. 

The  Indians  engaged  against  the  United  States  in 
open  war,  from  1790  to  the  peace  of  1794,  were  the 
"VYyandots,  Delawares,  Shawanese,  Chippawas,  Otto- 
was,  Potawatamies,  Miamis,  Eel  river  Indians,  and 
the  Weas.  Three  thousand  warriors  constituted  their 
strength  at  this  time ;  while  the  Miamis  alone  could 
have  mustered  that  number  a  short  time  before.  As 
late  as  1793,  they  had  determined  to  have  the  Ohio 
as  their  boundary.  The  battle  of  the  Rapids,  a  year 
after,  forced  them  to  the  Greenville  line,  and  for  many 
years  awed  them  into  quietness. 

We  are  compelled  to  take  leave  of  this  elegant 
and  instructive  production,  and  recommend  its  style 
and  contents  to  the  perusal  of  every  western  man.  It 
was  our  intention  to  treat  of  the  historical  parts  of 
the  address  of  Mr.  James  H.  Perkins.  Those  portions 
relate  to  the  remote  doings  of  the  French,  and  the 
early  occupancy  of  the  English,  of  which  we  have 
given  some  slight  outline  in  the  commencement  of 
this  article.  Mr.  Perkins  can  not  fail  to  be  read 
through  by  every  reader  of  any  portion  of  this  work. 
An  address  delivered  at  Marietta,  on  the  forty-eighth 
anniversary  of  the  settlement  of  that  place,  closes  the 
volume.  It  is  confined  to  the  transactions  of  that  re- 
gion, and  filled  with  matter  of  great  value.  Arius 
Nye,  Esq.,  is  the  author,  a  gentleman  bred  within 
sight  of  the  "  Campus  Martius,"  of  the  first  settle- 
ment in  Ohio.  This  post  became  a  prominent  point 
of  attack,  by  the  hostile  Indians.     Its  history  thrills 


24  FUGITIVE  BSBAYB. 

with  interest,  but  the  most  exalted  sentiments  con- 
nected with  its  recital  arise  on  the  Consideration  of 
the  nature  of  those  men  who  first  broke  in  upon  the 
forest- world  of  the  West,  and  successfully  planted 
civilization  in  the  midst  of  the  fiercest  barbarism. 
Their  like  is  never  to  be  known  again.  In  the  pro- 
gress and  mutations  of  human  affairs,  such  a  con- 
course of  circumstances  will  never  arise.  '  There  can 
never  be  another  such  revolution  as  that  of  1776.  If 
that  was  possible,  will  there  be  again  such  patriots, 
such  men  V  Then  came  the  weakness  of  their  coun- 
try, and  their  own  impoverishment ;  afterwards  the 
offer  of  western  lands,  in  compensation  for  military 
service,  but  requiring  the  protection  of  military  force. 
The  never-lessening  patience,  perseverance,  and  piety 
6f  those  stern  characters,  has  no  parallel.  With  ail 
these  traits  we  behold  the  hourly  exercise  of  courage, 
the  cool  contemplation  of  danger,  acuteness  of  de- 
sign, and  vigor  of  execution. 

In  dismissing  this  work,  we  must  express  our  ex- 
treme regret  that  no  index  or  even  contents  of  chap- 
ters can  be  found  on  its  pages. 


s  JUSTICE  TO  THE  MEMORY  OF  JOHN  FITCH, 

Who  in  1785  invented  a  steam  engine  and  steamboat — planned, 
constructed,  and  put  in  operation  the  steamboat  "Perseve- 
rance," of  sixty  tons,  moving  at  the  rate  of  eight  miles  an  hour, 
in  1788. 

[Western  Literary  Review,  Feb.  1844.] 


Upon  the  urgent  request  of  John  F.  Watson,  Esq., 
Of  German  town,  l\i.,  the  writer  about  two  years  since 
undertook  an  examination  of  the  claims  of  John  Fitch, 


MEMORY   OF   JOHN   FTTCII.  2d 

of  Philadelphia,  as  an  inventor  and  improver  of  steam 
engines  and  steamboats.  I  had  long  been  of  the 
opinion,  which* now  pervades  the  civilized  world,  that 
mankind  owed  to  Robert  Fulton,  not  only  the  improve- 
ment but  the  invention  of  steamboats.  And  to  ward 
off  a  smile,  which  those  well  versed  in  the  history  of 
the  steam  engine  and  its  applications  may  be  inclined 
to  indulge  at  my  expense,  the  following  quotations 
are  made.  They  show  that,  however  erroneous  my 
opinions  were  in  regard  to  the  real  author  of  that  con- 
trivance which  now  rides  on  every  navigable  river 
inhabited  by  civilized  man — defying  the  elements  and 
exacting  the  admiration  of  all — there  are  very  respect- 
able persons  entertaining  the  same  opinions. 

In  1838,  Judge  Tannehill  writes:  "When  Fulton 
first  conceived  the  idea  of  navigating  our  rapid  stream 
with  boats  propelled  by  steam,"*  &c. 

Judge  Story,  in  charging  the  jury  in  the  case  of 
Washburn  &  Brown  vs.  Gould,  Boston,  1844,  remarks: 
"Next  after  Fulton's  wonderful  invention  of  the 
steamboat,  whose  incalculable  benefits,"  &c. 

Still  later,  a  writer  in  the  American  Review  for 
January,  1845,  says:  "A  few  years  more  saw  the 
spirit  of  Fulton  arise,  and  call  into  existence  what  has 
proved  perhaps  the  most  important  of  the  manifold 
agencies  of  steam,  "f 

It  will  be  impracticable,  in  the  space  at  our  com- 
mand, to  return  through  the  space  of  one  hundred  and 
seven  years  to  the  days  of  the  Hulls  of  England,  who 
in  the  year  1737  obtained  a  patent  "for  a  new  inven- 
ted machine  for  carrying  vessels  out  of  or  into  any 
harbor,  port,  or  river,  against  wind  and  tide,  or  in  a 
calm,"  with  wheels  at  the  sides  of  the  vessels,  and 
buckets  on  the  periphery,  and  exhibit  to  our  readers 

*  Hesperian,  vol.  ii,  p.  106.  f  Am.  Review,  Art.,  Steam 

Navigation,  p.  22. 


VJ  FUGITIVE   ESSATS. 

the  various  contrivances  in  the  nature  of  self-moving 
craft  that  hare  been  thought  of  by  mechanics. 

It  is  not  clear  that  the  Hulls  Lad  a  steam  engine 
in  contemplation  as  a  moving  power,  although  a  huge 
chimney  arises  from  the  deck  of  their  vessel  which 
pours  forth  abundance  of  smoke, 

Solomon  Do  Caus  had  written  of  the  power  of 
steam  more  than  one  hundred  years  before  this  patent 
was  obtained  from  George  II.,  and  from  1012  to  102£ 
had  experimented  upon  its  forces  and  application. 

In  1003  the  Marquis  of  Worcester,  an  Englishman, 
wrote  of  his  hundred  inventions,  and  mentioned  "an 
admirable  and  forcible  way  to  drive  up  water  by 
fire." 

Dennis  Papin,  like  De  Caus,  a  native  of  France, 
had  lived  and  experimented  upon  steam  in  1098; 
Savary  in  1098 ;  and  Newcomen  and  Caliey,  or  Cawley, 
had  constructed  a  rude  but  improved  engine  in  IT  1 1. 
But  James  Watt,  though  living,  had  arrived  at  the 
age  of  only  one  year  when  Jonathan  Hull  applied  for 
his  patent;  and  the  engine  was  sleeping  in  the  philo- 
sophical rooms  at  the  University  of  Glasgow,  as  awk- 
ward and  cumbrous  thing.  It  had  hitherto  been 
applied  merely  as  a  lifter,  acting  in  a  right  line.  It 
had  been  taught  to  open  and  shut  some  of  the  valves 
of  the  condenser;  yet  its  energy  was  communicated 
only  in  one  direction,  relying  upon  the  atmosphere  to 
bring  the  piston  back  to  its  place.  If  the  Hulls  had 
at  this  early  day  an  idea  of  an  engine  with  a  rotary 
motion  fit t f'd  to  revolving  wheel*,  immortal  honors  are 
due  to  their  names.  The  proof  of  this  knowledge  ia 
so  far  deficient  as  to  preclude  this  idea. 

It  appears  to  be  a  Well-established  fact,  that  John 
Bournouilli,  in  France,  described  a  method  of  pro- 
pelling a  boat  in  water  by  means  of  a  pump,  and  his 
conception  was  made  public  before  the  French  Acad- 


MEMORY   OF  JOHN   FITCH.  27 

emy  in  1753.  The  power  of  steam  was  not  relied 
upon  to  work  the  pump,  but  that  of  animals  or  men. 
Even  in  the  clays  of  Papin  and  Savary,  a  boat  was 
worked  by  animals  on  the  Thames,  which  had  wheels 
at  the  side,  and  was  constructed  by  Prince  Rupert. 
Some  accounts,  ascending  to  the  time  of  the  Punic 
war,  mention  a  boat  moved  by  oxen,  which  the  Romans 
used  for  the  transportation  of  soldiers  across  an  arm 
of  the  sea. 

The  Spanish  nation  has  lately  produced  a  manu- 
script, said  to  have  been  found  at  Barcelona,  and  ac- 
cording to  it,  Blasco  De  Garay  gave  the  velocity  of  a 
league  an  hour  to  a  vessel  of  209  tons,  on  the  17th 
of*  June,  1543,  in  the  presence  of  Charles  V.  and  his 
cabinet. 

But  without  resorting  to  fabulous  or  uncertain 
stories,  we  continue  our  abstract  of  the  progress  of 
the  development  of  the  idea  of  steam  navigation. 

Next  after  Bernouilli  came  Genevois,  in  1759  ;  the 
Count  D'Auxirron,  of  France,  in  1774 ;  the  elder 
Perrier,  also  a  Frenchman,  in  1775.  The  Marquis 
De  Jouffioy  turned  his  attention  that  way  in  1778  and 
1781 ;  built  a  boat  to  be  moved  by  steam  at  Bourne  le 
Dimes,  which  he  described  in  1783  to  the  Academy. 

Jouffroy  experimented  many  years,  and  his  model 
boats  obtained  a  considerable  velocity. 

In  America,  Oliver  Evans  states  that  he  reflected 
upon  steam  vessels  as  early  as  1772-3,  but  made  no 
public  declaration  of  his  views.  Mr.  Henry,  of  Lan- 
caster, and  Andrew  Ellicot,  as  appears  from  conver- 
sations with  Mr.  Fitch,  had,  during  the  progress  of 
the  American  Revolution,  secretly  conceived  of  some 
plans  for  effecting  the  same  object. 

In  France,  the  Abbe  Raynal  had  projects  of  the 
Same  kind  in  1781. 

This   rapid   view   of  inventors  and   improvers  in 


28  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

steam  power  brings  us  to  the  time  when  experiments 
began  to  be  made  upon  the  same  subject  in  America* 
The  first  with  which  we  are  acquainted  in  this  country 
took  place  in  secret,  in  presence  of  a  few  friends  near 
Shepherdstown,  Va.,  during  the  fall  of  1784.*  It 
was  made  by  James  Rumsey,  a  native  of  Maryland, 
and  resident  of  Virginia,  who  had  conceived  of  the 
project  in  1783.  Rumsey 's  boat  had  a  capacity  of 
six  tons,  and  was  first  set  in  motion  privately  during 
the  darkness  of  night,  the  first  public  experiment 
having  been  made  in  the  year  1786  f  or  1787. 1 

Mr.  Fitch  conceived  of  a  plan  to  move  water  craft 
in  April,  1785.  Returning  one  Sunday  from  church, 
in  the  township  of  Warminster,  Buck's  county,  Pa., 
a  cliairy  a  riding  vehicle  with  wheels,  passed  along  the 
road.  Reflecting  upon  its  motion,  he  supposed  that 
it  might  be  made  to  traverse  the  country  by  the  force 
of  steam.  After  a  short  time  he  concluded  this  to  be 
impracticable,  and  turned  his  thoughts  upon  a  scheme 
of  propelling  vessels  in  water  by  the  same  agency. 

I  deem  it  unnecessary  to  proceed  farther  in  the  chro- 
nological notice  of  improvements  in  steamboats.  The 
reference  to  inventors  will  be  made  hereafter  without 
much  regard  to  the  order  of  time. 

There  were  in  Scotland,  Miller,  of  Dalwinston, 
1787;  Lord  Stanhope,  1793;  and  Hunter  and  Dickin- 
son, 1801 ;  in  France,  Des  Blancs,  1802;  in  America, 
John  Stevens,  Jun.,  1700-1,  and  R.  R.  Livingston, 
1798.  This  crowd  of  inventors  labored,  experimented, 
and  suffered  before  Mr.  Fulton's  boat  was  constructed 
at  Plombieres,  in  1803.     Their  several  machines  had 

*  Reports  of  Congress  Committees,  1888  7,  Vol.  ii.  No.  317. 
Letters  of  Wjushin-ton,  Jan.  31,  1788,  and  Nov.  2$,  17 

f  Reports  of  Committees,  1838-0,  No.  265;  aud  183G-7,  No. 
317. 

%  Virginia  Gazette  of  Nov.  or  Dec,  1787 


MEMORY   OF   JOHN    FITCH.  29 

produced  a  speed  of  two  or  three  miles  an  hour,  which 
was  not  of  sufficient  practical  importance  to  attract 
the  attention  of  commercial  men.  But  these  facts 
show  incontestably  how  little  room  there  was  for  the 
exercise  of  original  invention  in  the  conception  of  a 
steamboat  in  the  year  1793.  They  also  show  how 
little  had  been  done  towards  perfecting  the  boat  in  the 
year  1783-5,  when  the  American  improvers  took  up 
the  subject.  My  object  is  to  establish  some  points 
wherein  it  appears  that  public  sentiment  has  been 
misled  from  the  truth.  The  passages  above  quoted, 
and  numberless  expressions  uttered  in  conversation, 
whenever  the  subject  of  the  achievements  of  steam  is 
introduced ;  in  fact,  the  universal  sentiment  of  man- 
kind has  placed  the  era  of  steam  navigation  in  the 
year  1807,  when  the  Clermont  made  her  first  trip  along 
the  Hudson,  at  the  rate  of  four  and  seven-tenths  miles 
per  hour. 

This  opinion  so  well  fixed  and  so  prevalent  has 
descended  from  the  generation  which  was  astonished 
by  the  appearance  of  tins  boat,  and  of  the  Paragon, 
Oar  of  Neptune,  and  their  consorts,  to  another  who 
have  inherited  the  belief  of  their  ancestors.  Opinions 
derived  from  our  forefathers  require  but  little  con- 
firmatory proof.  They  are  often  received,  not  only 
without  evidence,  but  without  the  desire  of  it ;  with- 
out research,  without  question.  They  amount  to  more 
than  belief.  They  may  be  regarded  as  a  prejudice,  a 
condition  of  mind  where  contradiction  is  disagreeable, 
and  of  investigation  not  only  disagreeable  but  forbid- 
den. I  have  felt  this  bias,  and  can  appreciate  its 
force.  My  investigations  have  however  driven  me, 
step  by  step,  from  my  original  conclusions  in  regard 
to  the  date  of  the  great  impulse  which  inland  naviga- 
tion received  by  steam.  A  thousand  circumstances 
have  conspired  to  conceal  from  the  public  experiments 
3* 


30  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

made  and  results  obtained  at  Philadelphia  in  the  last 
century.  An  examination  of  those  experiments  may 
be  tedious,  but  may  also  be  interesting.  It  will  intro- 
duce, in  a  new  light,  a  man  of  extraordinary  charac- 
ter, a  man  without  education  or  property,  struggling 
against  adversity,  against  ridicule,  neglect,  want,  and 
an  accumulation  of  misfortunes,  to  perfect  an  inven- 
tion which  his  age  could  not  comprehend. 

The  investigation  will  exhibit  a  mechanical  genius, 
so  far  absorbed  in  its  great  idea  as  to  abandon  self, 
suffer  wrong,  and  perform  astonishing  labors,  to  ac- 
complish a  stupendous  undertaking,  in  advance  of  the 
times  in  which  he  lived.  I  think  it  will  be  acknowl- 
edged, that  the  undertaking  ivas  accomplished.  If 
the  improvement  of  an  engine  to  work  on  land  upon 
fixed  machinery  was  an  act  of  sufficient  merit  to  im- 
mortalize the  name  of  James  Watt,  in  England,  will 
not  the  construction  of  an  engine  by  John  Fitch,  in 
America,  at  the  same  time,  and  capable  of  driving  a 
vessel  upon  water,  ensure  his  name  a  place  among 
those  who  have  acquired  reputation  and  honor  as  im- 
provers upon  Savary  and  Newcomen  ?  How  many 
have  added  valuable  parts  to  the  engine  since  it  came 
from  the  hands  of  De  Caus?  Two  centuries  and  a 
quarter  of  time  have  been  expended  in  perfecting, 
increment  by  increment,  a  machine  which,  at  this  day, 
possesses  the  manual  facilities  of  man,  and  the  strength 
of  many  thousands.  One  man,  one  age,  was  insuffi- 
cient to  produce  this  result.  The  ingenious  of  many 
generations  have  spent  the  force  of  their  mechanical 
talents  in  the  study  and  improvement  of  the  engine 
alone.  Hundreds  and  thousands  have  wasted  life  and 
patrimony,  during  the  last  three  quarters  of  a  century, 
upon  the  improvement  of  the  boat  to  be  moved  by  its 
expanding  powers.  All  this  sacrifice,  this  thought, 
this  loss  of  case,  peace,  money,  friends,  and  human 


MEMORY   OF  JOHN    FITCH.  31 

life,  was  necessary  to  and  worthy  of  the  result. 
Every  individual  who  made  an  advance  upon  his  pre- 
decessors has  been  added  to  the  list  of  fame,  except 
the  obliterated  and  forgotten  name  of  John  Fitch. 
How  many  of  all  those  who  ride  over  the  waters  of  the 
earth,  impelled  by  the  force  of  steam,  ever  heard  it 
pronounced  ?  What  boat  of  all  the  seas  and  rivers  of 
the  two  continents  has  his  name  upon  her  sides  ?  And 
among  the  scattered  reminiscences  which  his  surviving 
friends  here  and  there  publish  to  the  world,  how  few 
are  credited  or  even  received  in  memory.  Among 
those  who  have  charge  of  the  engine,  now  performing 
its  delicate  and  wonderful  duties  in  every  city,  town, 
and  village  of  importance  within  the  range  of  manu- 
facturing enterprise,  can  ten  men  be  found  who  are 
aware  that  John  Fitch  lived,  and  obtained  the  first 
regular  rotary  movement  of  its  part  in  America?  Oliver 
Evans,  probably  the  most  extensive  improver  of  the 
engine  in  the  new  world,  is  well  known  to  his  country- 
men. His  name  is  familiar,  and  his  exalted  merits  as 
a  mechanic  are  acknowledged,  not  only  in  the  United 
States,  but  on  the  other  shore  of  the  Atlantic.  But 
from  the  imperfect  biographical  notices  within  our 
reach,  it  does  not  appear  that  in  1785  Mr.  Evans  had 
constructed  any  of  his  projected  improvements  upon 
engines  and  steam  carriages. 

Before  Mr.  Fitch  had  devoted  his  talents  to  the 
subject,  Mr.  Evans  undoubtedly  arrived  at  conclusions 
in  regard  to  steam  machinery ;  for  in  1781  he  had 
asserted  that  by  the  "power  of  steam  he  could  drive 
anything,  wagons,  mills,  or  vessels."  But  if  any  of 
these  conceptions  were,  at  this  time,  reduced  to  prac- 
tice, and  made  visible  to  the  world,  his  historians  are 
not  in  possession  of  the  facts.  His  petition  to  the 
Legislature  of  Pennsylvania  for  a  monopoly  is  dated 
in  the  year  1786.     At  this  time,  Mr.  Fitch  had  con- 


$2  FUGITIVE  ESSAYS. 

structed  a  working  model  with  a  cylinder,  at  first  of 
one  inch  in  diameter,  and  afterwards  of  three  inches, 
in  which  continuous  rotary  motion  was  effected.  Of 
his  first  attempts  at  an  engine,  he  makes  the  following 
assertions  :  "  What  I  am  now  to  inform  you  of,  I  know 
will  not  he  to  my  credit,  but  so  long  as  it  is  the  truth 
I  will  insert  it,  viz :  that  I  did  not  know  there  was  a 
steam  engine  on  earth  when  I  proposed  to  gain  force 
by  steam.  I  leave  my  first  draft  and  descriptions  be- 
hind, that  you  may  judge  whether  I  am  sincere  or  not. 
A  short  time  after  drawing  my  first  draft  for  a  boat, 
I  was  amazingly  chagrined  to  find  at  Parson  Irwin's, 
in  Bucks  county,  a  drawing  of  a  steam  engine,  but  it 
had  the  effect  to  establish  me  in  my  principles,  as  my 
doubts  lay  at  that  time  in  the  engine  only."* 

This  was  in  April,  1785.  The  improvements  of 
Watt  were  some  of  them  patented  in  1769 ;  but  his 
patents  for  rotary  motion,  four  in  number,  bear  date 
from  1782  to  1785.  For  parallel  motion  he  received 
a  patent  in  1784.  If  Mr.  Rumsey  had  at  this  time 
constructed  an  engine,  it  was  such  an  one  as,  without 
rotary  motion,  would  work  a  pump  by  a  right  line 
movement.  For  locomotives,  for  machinery  in  general, 
and  for  vessels,  this  continuous  regular  revolving  appa- 
ratus is  not  only  necessary,  but  indispensable.  The 
uses  of  the  engine,  without  the  faculty  of  unceasing 
revolution,  would  be  limited  and  insignificant,  as  they 
were  before  the  time  of  Watt. 

Mr.  Fitch  constructed  a  rotary  engine  and  put  it 
in  operation.  Did  he  invent  as  well  as  construct  this 
rotation?  Had  the  improvements  made  in  England 
within  the  three  previous  years  reached  him  in  Penn- 
sylvania ?  Were  they  generally  known  even  in  Eng- 
land at  that  time?  were  they  published ?  were  they 
sent  to  America  ?      Had  Evans  communicated  with 

*  Fitch's  Manuscript  Writings. 


MEMORY   OF   JOHN    FITCH.  33 

Fitch?  Had  Rumsey?  and  if  he  had,  was  there  any- 
thing in  the  pumping  engine  that  could  be  applied  to 
the  revolving  engine  ?  To  sustain  the  affirmative  of 
these  queries,  we  know  of  no  proof.  The  American  col- 
onies were  at  war  with  England,  and  intercourse  was 
unfrequent  until  after  the  peace  of  1783.  The  pre- 
sumption is  in  favor  of  the  negative  to  them  all. 
Uumsey's  machine  was  kept  a  secret  until  within  a  few 
months  of  April,  1785.  Communication  was  irregular 
and  slow,  mails  and  newspapers  few,  and  not  within 
the  means  of  poor  mechanics  like  Fitch  and  Rumsey. 
Fitch  himself  was  in  the  wilds  of  Ohio  and  the  north- 
west; a  prisoner  among  savages  from  1782  to  1783, 
an  1  from  1783  to  1785  remained  in  the  obscure  vil- 
1  \<re  of  Warminster,  laboring  at  the  business  of  a  silver- 
ruith  to  procure  the  bread  of  life. 

In  addition  to  these  circumstances,  there  is  the 
following  paper,  which  may  be  found  in  the  American 
State  Papers  (miscellaneous),  vol.  i.  page  12.  It  is  a 
copy  of  his  petition  to  Congress,  dated  July  2d,  1790, 
and  says,  "  That  the  great  length  of  time  and  vast  re- 
sources of  money  expended  in  bringing  the  scheme  to 
perfection  have  been  wholly  occasioned  by  his  total 
ignorance  of  the  steam  engine,  a  perfect  knowledge 
of  which  has  not  been  acquired  without  an  infinite  num- 
ber of  fruitless  experiments,  for  not  a  person  could  be 
found  who  was  acquainted  with  the  new  engine  of 
Bolton  and  Watt.  Whether  your  petitioner's  engine 
is  similar  to  those  in  England  or  not,  he  is  at  this  mo- 
ment totally  ignorant,  but  is  happy  to  inform  Congress 
that  he  is  now  able  to  make  a  complete  steam  engine, 
which,  in  its  effects,  is  equal  to  the  best  in  Europe.'' 

In  1803,  thirteen  years  after  this  affirmation  was 
made,  the  workshops  of  America  could  not  furnish  an 
Engine.*    Mr.  Fitch  regarded  the  construction  of  tire 

*  Kenwiok  ou  Steam,  2o6. 


34  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

engine  as  the  great  obstacle,  and  to  overcome  this  what 
resources  of  knowledge  were  within  his  reach,  other 
than  the  original  inventive  powers  of  his  own  mind  ? 
Dr.  William  Thornton,  one  of  the  Philadelphia  com- 
pany, says  they  labored  "under  the  disadvantages  of 
never  having  seen  an  engine,  and  not  having  a  single 
engineer  in  our  company,  or  pay,  we  made  engineers 
of  common  blacksmiths,"*  &c.  In  England,  from 
whence  alone  such  information  could  have  been  drawn, 
no  such  engine  existed,  and  therefore  could  not  have 
furnished  the  ideas,  model,  or  descriptions  for  this. 
An  engine  for  a  cotton  mill  was  incapable  of  driving 
a  boat,  without  material  alterations.  Twenty  years 
afterwards  Mr.  Fulton  regarded  the  adaptation  of  the 
engine  of  Watt,  made  to  order  in  England,  expressly 
for  the  use  of  the  Clermont  upon  the  Hudson,  as  the 
greatest  difficulty  in  his  path  to  success.  The  new 
parts  necessary  to  be  added,  the  new  form  to  be  given 
to  parts  then  in  existence,  in  order  to  conform  to  the 
limited  space  of  the  hold,  and  to  connect  with  the 
shafts  or  axles  of  the  wheels,  were  to  him  the  princi- 
pal causes  of  doubt.  At  this  time  (1807),  when  the 
genius  of  Fulton  was  so  much  embarrassed  by  the 
fitting  and  application  of  the  engine,  its  construction 
had  been  brought  to  a  high  state  of  perfection  in  Eu- 
rope, and  he  had  the  assistance  of  Watt  himself  in 
overcoming  those  obstacles.  In  1785-6-7,  Fitch  had 
no  Watt,  no  engine,  no  machinist  who  had  made  or 
ever  seen  one,  no  workshop  and  tools,  no  detailed 
descriptions. 

My  purpose  has  been  thus  far  to  exhibit  the  powerful 
resources  of  his  intellect  as  applied  to  engines.  As 
we  advance  it  will  appear  more  fully  what  kind  of  an 
engine  he  produced,  and  what  where  its  effects.  For 
fV,  vvsen*",  let  it  be  remembered,  that  the  first  rotary 

1  JJ»-S     <f  Eminent  Mechanics. 


MEMORY   OF  JOHN    I  ITCH.  35 

engine  in  America  was  conceived  by  him  in  1785,  antl 
a  working  model  finished  in  1786.  I  shall  not  dwell 
longer  upon  the  proofs  and  arguments  in  favor  of  his 
originality  as  an  inventor  of  this  engine,  leaving  the 
facts  advanced  to  produce  their  effects.  If  it  is  claimed 
that  its  prior  existence  in  Europe  takes  away  the  merit 
of  first  invention,  it  can  not  be  asserted  that  the  en- 
gine as  applied  to  his  boat  is  not  a  new  as  well  as  an 
original  invention.  The  moving  agent  of  Jouffroy,  if 
in  principal,  form,  or  substance,  similar  to  the  one  of 
Fitch,  not  being  known  as  such  in  America,  in  Eng- 
land, or  in  France,  either  in  1785  or  in  1845,  could 
not  have  been  the  model  from  which  the  Philadelphia 
mechanic  obtained  his  ideas. 

It  will  be  necessary  to  omit  the  personal  history 
of  Mr.  Fitch.  His  life,  as  a  mere  popular  narrative, 
might  be  invested  with  an  intense  interest.  It  would 
prove  the  truth  of  his  own  words  concerning  himself, 
as  "  one  of  the  most  singular  as  well  as  one  of  the 
most  unfortunate  of  men."  It  would  exhibit  misfor- 
tune and  suffering,  great  undertakings  followed  by 
disappointment  and  despondency,  great  force  of  char- 
acter, courage,  and  pride.  It  would  show  personal  an- 
tipathies to  be  regretted  and  noble  sentiments  to  be 
admired.  Tenderness  as  a  parent  would  appear  in 
strange  contrast  with  an  unforgiving  temper  as  a  hus- 
band— honorable  impulses  and  raging  passions  con- 
tending in  the  same  bosom.  His  intellect  bore  the 
stamp  of  originality  and  independence,  his  foresight  had 
the  air  of  prophecy.  He  was  born  at  Windsor,  Conn., 
Jan.  21,  1743  (0.  S.),  and  remained  in  that  vicinity 
until  about  twenty-five  years  of  age,  receiving  a  very 
\  scanty  common  school  education.  By  the  severity  of 
his  father  and  elder  brother,  his  life  at  home  was  rer> 
dered  wretched;  and  he  was  bound  apprentice  to  a 
watchmaker,    without,   howeyer,    having    acquired    a 


36  FUGITIVE  ESSAYS. 

knowledge  of  the  trade.  An  unfortunate  marriage 
crowned  the  misery  of  his  condition,  and  in  1769  he 
became  the  adventurer  of  fortune.  After  many  wander- 
ings, he  became  a  resident  watchmaker  at  Trenton,  New 
Jersey,  where  he  exercised  his  trade  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  Revolution.  The  demand  for  arms  induced 
him  to  undertake  the  business  of  a  gun-smith  for  the 
American  forces,  which  exposed  his  property  to  destruc- 
tion, when  the  British  entered  that  village,  in  December, 
1776.  He  joined  the  troops  of  New  Jersey  and  en- 
dured the  rigors  of  a  winter  camp  at  Valley  Forge. 

Retiring  from  camp,  he  recommenced  the  trade 
of  a  silversmith,  in  Bucks  county,  Pa.,  occasionally 
traversing  the  county  on  foot  to  repair  the  clocks  and 
watches  of  the  inhabitants.  Having  procured  an 
appointment  as  deputy  surveyor  from  the  State  of 
Virginia,  he  started  for  Kentucky  with  a  knapsack 
upon  his  back  and  a  compass  in  his  hand,  in  the  spring 
of  1780. 

In  the  fall  of  1781,  he  returned  to  Philadelphia, 
having  made  extensive  surveys  between  the  Kentucky 
and  Green  rivers.  In  the  spring  of  1782,  collecting 
the  fragments  of  $4000  which  had  been  received  in 
continental  money,  he  was  barely  able  to  raise  <£150 
Pennsylvania  currency  as  a  capital  for  Western  adven- 
ture. At  the  mouth  of  the  Muskingum  this  remnant 
of  his  fortune,  invested  in  flour  and  goods,  was  cap- 
tured and  destroyed  by  Indians,  two  of  the  party 
killed,  and  nine  taken  prisoners.  Fitch  had  the  ad- 
dress to  conciliate  Capt.  Buffaloe,  the  leader  of  the 
band,  and  the  physical  endurance  to  sustain  the  rigors 
of  Indian  slavery. 

After  various  adventures  he  reached  "Warminster 
in  the  winter  of  1782-3,  penniless  and  dejected.  Here 
he  resided  when  the  "unfortunate"  inspiration  came 
across  his  mind  in  regard  t<>  steam. 


MEMORY  OP  JOHN   FITCH.  37 

"From  that  time  (1785)  I  have,"  he  says,  "  pur- 
sued the  idea  to  this  day  (1792)  with  unremitted 
assiduity,  yet  do  frankly  confess  that  it  has  been  the 
most  imprudent  scheme  that  I  ever  engaged  in.  The 
perplexities  and  embarrassments  through  which  it  has 
caused  me  to  wade,  far  exceeded  anything  that  the 
common  course  of  life  ever  presented  to  my  view." 

To  comprehend  more  clearly  what  ground  Mr. 
Fitch  occupied  as  an  inventor  we  must  revert  to  the 
engine  and  the  boat.  An  engine  having  long  been 
known,  it  was  not  the  subject  of  conception,  as  a  new 
and  unheard  of  thing.  The  idea  of  a  boat  to  be  moved 
by  steam  having  been  known  and  discussed,  could  not 
at  that  day  have  been  thought  of  as  a  first  invention. 
The  proof,  it  appears  to  me,  is  conclusive  that,  in  re- 
gard both  to  the  engine  and  boat,  Mr.  Fitch  had  formed 
a  connected  plan  before  it  was  known  to  him  that  they 
existed ;  that  he  was  therefore  an  original,  but  not  a 
new  or  first  inventor. 

The  field  then  open  to  the  speculator  in  boats  and 
engines  embraced  only  the  improvements  and  appli- 
cations. The  knowledge  of  this  fact  struck  down  his 
rising  hopes  of  renown  and  usefulness.  He  had 
seen  the  rivers  of  the  West,  and  had  heard  from  the 
Indians  of  many  lakes  and  streams  far  away  in  the 
north  and  north-west.  He  had  trod  the  rich  soil  of 
the  Kentucky,  the  Sciota,  and  the  Miami  rivers,  and 
foresaw  the  capacity  of  the  regions  watered  by  those 
streams  for  the  support  of  life  and  commerce.  His 
brain  was  fired  with  the  thought  that  the  navigation 
of  those  rivers  might  be  effected  by  his  agency,  and 
for  a  time  luxuriated  in  the  delusion  that  no  mortal 
had  conceived  of  a  similar  project.  But  stripped  of 
those  lofty  anticipations,  he  persevered  as  an  improver, 
in  what  he  commenced  as  an  inventor.  What  ground 
was  yet  unoccupied?  The  experiments  of  Rumsey, 
4 


33  FUC1TTIVE     ESSAYS. 

though  unknown  to  Fitch,  had  heen  made.  A  hoat 
had  been  moved  upon  the  Potomac,  with  a  velocity  of 
three  miles  an  hour,  and  afterwards  increased  to  "four 
or  five."  It  is  said  that  Jouffroy  had  procured  a  mo- 
tion of  three  miles  an  hour  likewise,  unknown  to  Fitch. 
The  abstract  question  of  a  boat  was  no  longer  open  to 
invention,  nor  was  the  first  construction  of  a  self- 
moving  craft  to  be  made  twice. 

There  was  room,  however,  for  the  invention  and 
construction  of  such  a  boat  as  should,  by  different 
arrangements,  machinery  and  apparatus,  be  an  im- 
provement upon  all  known  steam  vessels. 

And  it  is  not  of  so  much  importance  in  estimating 
the  value  of  an  invention,  to  know  all  that  has  been 
done,  as  to  regard  what  has  been  thought  of  or  made 
which  is  identical.  The  fact  that  the  end  to  be  at- 
tained is  the  same,  by  no  means  precludes  the  idea  of 
arriving  at  it  by  different  methods.  That  meritorious 
mechanic  Rumscy,  selected  owe  mode,  Jouffroy  another, 
and  Fitch  a  third.  The  name  of  all  these  contri- 
vances was  the  same,  and  the  object  the  same.  In 
each  case  there  was  a  floating  vessel  and  an  internal 
power,  the  whole  called  by  a  common  name,  the 
"  Steamboat."  Between  the  central  force  and  the 
water,  or  medium  on  which  it  must  be  applied,  there 
was  a  gap  not  filled.  The  boat  of  our  day  has  re- 
ceived a  connecting  apparatus,  which  transfers  the 
power  of  the  steam  cylinder  to  the  surface  of  the 
water  by  means  of  cranks,  shafts,  wheels,  and  buckets. 

It  is  this  boat  as  reduced  to  practice,  that  has  re- 
ceived so  much  admiration,  ana  been  of  such  vast 
utility.  At  that  day  it  did  not  exist,  now  it  does ; 
who  made  it  what  it  is  f  The  discussion  is  naturally 
confined  to  such  a  boat,  and  does  not  range  through 
ull  manner  of  boats  that  have  ever  been  thought  of  or 
tried. 


MEMORY   OF   JOHN   FITCH.  39 

To  compare  more  directly  the  methods  adopted  by 
the  two  American  competitors,  and  to  compress  the 
presentation  of  the  subject  as  much  as  possible,  I  have 
postponed  the  description  of  these  respective  boats, 
and  here  introduce  them  side  by  side: 

Description  of  the  boat  of  James  Rumscy. 

"Rumsey's  boat  was  about  fifty  feet  in  length; 
was  propelled  by  a  pump  worked  by  a  steam  engine, 
which  forced  a  quantity  of  water  up  through  the  keel ; 
the  valve  was  then  shut  by  the  return  stroke,  which  at 
the  same  time  forced  the  water  through  a  channel  or 
pipe,  a  few  inches  square,  lying  above  and  parallel  to 
the  kelson  out  at  the  stern  under  the  rudder.  The 
impetus  of  this  water  forcing  the  square  channel 
against  the  exterior  water  acted  as  an  unfailing  power 
upon  the  vessel.  The  reaction  of  the  effluent  water 
propelled  her  at  the  rate  above  mentioned  (four  or 
five  miles  an  hour),  when  loaded  with  three  tons,  in 
addition  to  the  weight  of  her  engine,  or  about  one- 
third  of  a  ton.  The  boiler  was  quite  a  curiosity,  hold- 
ing no  more  than  five  gallons  of  water,  and  needing 
only  a  pint  at  a  time.  The  whole  machinery  did  not 
occupy  a  space  greater  than  that  required  for  four 
barrels  of  Hour.  The  fuel  consumed  was  not  more 
than  four  to  six  bushels  of  coal  in  twelve  hours.  Rum- 
sey's other  project  was  to  apply  the  power  of  a  steam 
engine  to  long  poles,  which  were  to  reach  the  bottom 
of  the  river,  and  by  that  means  push  a  boat  against 
the  current."* 

Description  of  the  boat  of  John  Fitch, 

Published  by  himself  in  the  Columbian  Magazine,  Dec.  1788. 

"  The  cylinder  is  to  be  horizontal,  and  the  steam 
to  work  with  equal  force  at  both  ends.     The  mode  by 

*  Stuart's  Anecdotes  of  the  Steam  Engine. 


40  FUGITIVE  ESSAYS. 

which  we  obtain  a  vacuum  is,  we  believe,  entirely  new, 
as  is  also  the  method  of  letting  the  water  into  it,  and 
throwing  it  off  against  the  atmosphere  without  any 
friction.  It  is  expected  that  the  cylinder,  which  is 
twelve  inches  in  diameter,  will  move  with  a  clear  force 
of  eleven  or  twelve  hundred  weight  after  the  frictions 
are  deducted  ;  this  force  to  be  directed  against  a  wheel 
eighteen  inches  in  diameter.  The  piston  is  to  move 
about  three  feet,  and  each  vibration  of  it  is  to  give 
the  axis  (or  shaft)  forty  revolutions.  Eacli  revolution 
of  the  axis  moves  twelve  oars  or  paddles,  five  and  a 
half  feet.  They  work  perpendicularly,  and  are  repre- 
sented by  the  strokes  of  the  paddle  of  a  canoe  ;  as  six 
of  the  paddles  are  raised  from  the  water,  six  more  are 
entered  (three  on  a  side),  and  the  two  sets  of  paddles 
make  their  strokes  of  about  eleven  feet  at  each  revolu- 
tion. The  cranks  of  the  axis  set  upon  the  paddles, 
about  one-third  of  their  length  from  their  lower  ends, 
on  which  part  of  the  oar  the  whole  force  of  the  axis 
is  applied.  The  engine  is  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the 
boat  about  one-third  from  the  stern,  and  both  the  ac- 
tion and  reaction  turn  the  wheel  the  same  way." 

Such  are  the  two  schemes  of  navigation  which  oc- 
cupied the  minds  of  Rumsey  and  Fitch,  which  became 
the  ruling  passion  of  their  souls,  and  continued  to 
employ  their  mental  and  physical  energies  until  the 
]a>t  hours  of  life.  It  was  in  respect  to  these  projects, 
so  widely  different,  that  between  them  an  Animated 
personal  controversy  arose  during  their  lives  for  the 
honor  of  the  priority  and  value  of  their  respective 
machines.  It  would  seem  that  they  were  pursuing 
paths  so  far  asunder  that  no  collision  of  this  kind  was 
necessary.  It  would  be  difficult  to  point  out  a  single 
article  common  to  the  two  boats,  except  the  boiler  and 
the  floating  craft.  Whatever  merit  belongs  t<>  either 
may  be  shared  in  its  fullest  extent  without  derogating 


MEMORY  OF  JOHN  FITCH.  41 

from  the  other.  Rumsey  invented  in  1783,  experi- 
mented in  1784,  and  more  fully  in  1786  or  1787. 
Fitch  invented  in  1785,  experimented  in  1786,  and 
performed  on  a  large  scale  in  1788.  Both  began  as 
original  inventors,  but  both  had  the  mortification  to 
learn  that  they  were  not  prior  inventors.  For  llum- 
sey's  propelling  arrangement,  Bernoulli  had  pre-occu- 
pied  the  ground  fifty  years  before,  and  as  to  the  en- 
gine, the  invention  had  been  known  more  than  a 
century.  In  this  respect,  however,  the  engine  of  Fitch 
is  to  the  engine  as  an  improved  machine  what  Watt  is 
to  Newcomen.  The  latter  was  without  circular  motion, 
without,  therefore,  a  complicated  connecting  series, 
without  axles  or  shaft  crank  or  cogwheels.  The  en- 
gine of  the  former  appears  to  have  included  the 
"  double-acting"  principle,  by  which  the  old  atmos- 
pheric engine  was  made  a  true  and  real  steam  engine, 
working,  as  he  says,  "with  equal  force  at  both  ends." 
This  improvement,  like  that  of  a  good  rotary  mo- 
tion, was  likewise  introduced  by  Watt  about  the  same 
time.  We  have  no  account  of  the  precise  time  when 
Mr.  Fitch  made  this  addition,  or  whether  it  was  origi- 
nal with  him  or  not.  Neither  am  I  able  at  this  time 
to  ascertain  the  exact  period  when  Mr.  Watt  first  made 
known  to  the  world  his  invention  of  the  double-acting 
cylinder.  It  is  reported  that  he  retained  it  as  a  secret 
a  long  time  after  his  own  conceptions  were  matured. 
If  made  public  in  1785-6,  whether  it  had  reached  Mr. 
Fitch,  at  Warminster,  is  also  involved  in  doubt.  For 
this,  as  for  the  rotary  apparatus,  I  refer  to  his  own 
statement  made,  many  years  after,  to  the  American 
Congress.  His  first  model  was  completed  in  brass  in 
August,  1785,  having  its  machinery  perfect,  and  bear- 
ing at  the  sides  wheels  instead  of  paddles.  The  pad- 
dles were  adopted  in  1786,  after  experimenting  upon 
the  wheels. 

4* 


42  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

Dr.  Franklin,  in  the  fall  of  1785,  had  written  an 
essay  upon  navigation,  discarding  the  use  of  the 
wheels,  and  adopting  the  plan  of  Bernoulli. 

The  buckets  of  the  wheels  were  found  to  labor  too 
much  in  the  water,  entering,  as  they  did,  at  a  consider- 
able angle,  and  departing  at  the  same.  They  lost 
power  by  striking  the  surface,  and  afterwards  by  lift- 
ing themselves  out  of  the  water.  This  led  to  the  sub- 
stitution of  oars  or  paddles,  which  entered  almost 
perpendicular,  and  left  the  water  inclined  a  little 
towards  the  stern.  The  construction  of  such  a  boat 
became  to  Fitch  the  highest  object  of  his  ambition. 
He  applied  to  the  Continental  Congress  for  aid,  rep- 
resenting the  immense  advantage  its  success  would  be 
to  the  western  lands  lately  conquered  by  the  American 
arms.  He  petitioned  the  legislature  of  Pennsyl- 
vania for  money,  representing  in  high  wrought  figure 
of  the  imagination  the  splendid  consequences  of  the 
project,  if  carried  into  effect.  He  portrayed  in  the  pri- 
vate ear  of  the  Western  and  Virginia  members  of  Con- 
gress, the  achievements  in  reserve  for  steam  through 
the  agency  of  his  contrivance.  He  wrote  to  Franklin 
in  October,  1786,  affirming  the  practicability  of  sea 
navigation  by  steam  vessels,  and  every  where,  and  at 
all  times,  boldly  asserted  as  a  prediction  what  we  ob- 
serve as  facts.  But  none  of  his  fervid  representations 
produced  the  money,  and  he  acquired  the  reputation 
of  an  insane  man.  Finally,  by  the  construction,  en- 
graving, and  sale  of  a  map  of  the  north-western  terri- 
tory, all  of  which  was  done  with  his  own  hands,  in  the 
workshop  of  his  friend  Cobe  Scout  of  Warininster, 
and  the  impression  taken  in  a  cider  press,  he  raised 
about  $800,  and  in  February,  1787,  formed  a  company 
of  forty  shares,  and  commenced  a  boat  of  sixty  tons. 
After  innumerable  vexations  and  delays,  principally 
occasioned  by  the  formation  of  the  engine,  the  boat 


MEMORY   OF  JOHN    FITCH.  43 

was  put  in  motion,  and  made  only  three  miles  an  hour. 
The  machinery  was  so  rough  that  the  expected  power 
of  a  cylinder  of  twelve  inches  was  not  realized.  The 
company  was  discouraged,  but  another  rally  was 
effected,  the  shares  doubled,  and  the  improvements 
commenced.  "I  was,"  says  Dr.  Thornton,  "among 
the  number  (shareholders),  and  in  less  than  twelve 
months  Ave  were  ready  for  the  experiment." 

The  day  was  appointed.  A  mile  was  measured  on 
Front  street  (now  Water  street),  Philadelphia,  and  the 
bound  projected  at  right  angles  as  exactly  as  could  be 
to  the  wharf,  where  a  flag  was  placed  at  each  end,  and 
also  a  stop-watch.  The  boat  was  ordered  under  way 
at  dead  water,  or  when  the  tide  was  found  to  be  with- 
out movement.  As  the  boat  passed  one  flag  it  was 
struck,  and  at  the  same  instant  the  wratches  were  set 
oft'.  When  the  boat  reached  the  other  flag  it  was  also 
struck,  and  the  watches  instantly  stopped.  Every  pre- 
caution was  taken  before  witnesses,  the  time  was  shown 
to  all,  and  the  experiment  declared  to  be  fairly  made. 
The  boat  was  proved  to  go  at  the  rate  of  eight  miles 
an  hour,  or  one  mile  in  seven  minutes  and  a  half, 
upon  which  the  shares  were  signed  over  with  great 
satisfaction  by  the  rest  of  the  company.  It  after- 
wards made  eighty  miles  in  one  day.* 

This  was  in  October,  1788,  and  the  boat  was  called 
the  "Perseverance.'1''  On  the  12th  of  the  same  month, 
she  ascended  the  Delaware  to  Burlington,  with  thirty 
passengers,  a  distance  of  twenty  miles,  in  three  hours 
and  twenty  minutes.  She  had  as  yet  no  cabins,  but 
ran  as  a  passenger  boat  for  some  time  on  the  Dela- 
ware. If  Dr.  Thornton  means  by  "a  day"  twelve 
hours,  running  time,  her  speed  was  six  and  two-thirds 
miles  per  hour.  Her  trip  to  Burlington  was  made  at 
six  and  one-third  miles  an  hour.     But  Mr.  Fitch  had 

*  Lives  of  Eminent  Mechauics,  p.  o'2. 


44  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

calculated  upon  a  regular  rate  of  eight  miles,  and  was 
therefore  not  satisfied  with  her  performances.  The 
success  already  obtained  gave  him  pleasure,  but  he 
looked  forward  to  greater  results.  He  was  well  aware 
that  along  the  level  roads  of  the  Delaware,  where 
stages  could  make  five  or  six  miles  an  hour,  a  passen- 
ger boat  of  six  miles  could  never  be  profitable.  It  was 
necessary  to  exhibit  a  speed  which  should  astonish  the 
beholder,  in  order  to  induce  the  public  to  travel  upon 
a  craft  that  had  more  the  appearance  of  an  infernal 
machine  than  of  a  quiet,  comfortable,  and  safe  con- 
veyance. He  therefore  abandoned  the  company  to 
make  new  and  more  enlarged  efforts,  and  the  Perse- 
verance was  laid  up  for  the  winter. 

Although  no  money  could  be  obtained  from  Con- 
gress, the  States,  or  from  various  corporations  ad- 
dressed on  the  subject,  the  legislatures  of  New  York, 
New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Delaware,  Maryland,  and 
Virginia,  had  granted  him  valuable  but  indefinite  mo- 
nopolies for  a  term  of  years. 

His  dissatisfaction  with  the  company  arose  from 
repeated  interference  on  the  part  of  the  members, 
upon  which  he  was  dependent  for  money,  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  machinery.  In  the  winter  of  1788-9, 
old  scores  were  settled,  and  in  the  coming  spring  new 
arrangements  were  made  for  a  more  perfect  and  en- 
larged boat.  She  was  completed  in  the  fall,  and  made 
an  experiment  which  was  satisfactory.  That  night  she 
took  fire  and  burned  to  the  water's  edge. 

In  the  spring  of  1790,  the  second  boat  was  repaired, 
a  consolidated  company  formed,  and  a  third  steamer 
constructed  during  the  summer.  These  were  destined 
to  fulfil  the  conditions  of  the  grant  from  Virginia,  re- 
quiring the  presence  of  two  working  boats  within  her 
waters  before  the  expiration  of  four  years.  The  law 
expired  November  7th,  1790,  and  the  two  boats  were 


MEMORY    OF   JOHN    FITCH.  45 

lying  in  the  Delaware  ready  for  a  movement,  when  a 
furious  storm  arose  and  drove  one  of  them  upon  Pet- 
ty's  Island,  where  it  lay  until  after  the  statute  expired. 
Deprived  of  every  hope  of  relief  from  the  grants  of 
the  States,  he  turned  to  the  new  Congress  and  the 
patent  laws  under  the  constitution.  On  application 
to  the  Congress  of  the  Confederacy  in.  1788,  he  used 
the  following  expressions :  "  We  have  overcome  every 
difficulty  which  can  cause  doubts  to  arise,  having  done 
what  was  never  done  before.  We  have  exhibited  to 
the  world  a  vessel  going  against  strong  winds  and 
tides,  the  vessel  carrying  the  engine,  the  engine  pro- 
pelling the  vessel,  and  all  moving  together  against  the 
current.  If  we  never  carry  it  to  any  greater  degree 
of  perfection,  we  have,  I  presume,  merited  a  generous 
reward." 

In  the  petition  of  July  2d,  1790,  from  which  we 
have  already  quoted,  he  recapitulates  the  history  of 
his  enterprise,  and  observes  that,  "Having  at  length 
fully  succeeded  in  his  scheme,  he  trusts  he  now  comes 
forward  not  as  an  imaginary  projector." 

The  year  1791  was  principally  wasted  in  securing 
a  patent  from  the  United  States,  which  bear  date 
August  26th  of  that  year.  This  patent  is  not  to  be 
found  in  the  Commissioner's  office,  having  been  de- 
stroyed by  fire  with  the  public  buildings  in  1886.  Its 
terms,  therefore,  can  not  be  quoted.  But  in  1817,  a 
committee  of  the  legislature  of  New  York,  before  whom 
it  was  shown,  with  drawings,  models,  and  testimony, 
make  the  following  official  statement  respecting  it : 
"In  Fitch's  boat,  the  cranks  of  the  axle  beam  were 
connected  with  a  frame,  from  which  paddles  were  sus- 
pended, acting  in  an  elliptical  line  upon  the  water ; 
while  in  Fulton's  boat,  the  axle  was  attached  to  verti- 
cal wheels,  with  paddles  or  buckets  permanently  fixed 
in  the  periphery,  and  in  both    the  motion  of  the  axis 


46  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

was  rotary.  The  boats  built  by  Livingston  and  Fulton 
were,  in  substance,  the  invention  patented  to  John 
Fitch  in  1791,  and  that  Fitch,  during  the  time  of  his 
patent,  had  the  exclusive  right  to  use  the  same  in  the 
United  States."* 

This  committee  had  before  them  written  statements 
of  Dr.  Rittenhouse,  Andrew  Ellicott,  John  Ewing, 
and  Oliver  Evans,  who  certified  to  the  performances 
of  the  Perseverance  and  other  boats  on  the  Delaware. 
General  Bloomfield  appeared  in  person,  and  stated 
that  he  had  passed  up  and  down  the  Delaware  as  a 
passenger  on  the  boat,  and  regarded  her  as  in  success- 
ful operation. 

The  patent  system  was  then  so  loosely  executed, 
that  he  regarded  his  parchment  from  the  United  States 
as  calculated  rather  to  involve  him  in  useless  litigation 
than  to  give  him  valuable  protection.  He  had  been 
in  communication  with  the  Spanish  minister  at  Phila- 
delphia, and  the  Governor  at  New  Orleans,  respecting 
a  right  to  the  use  of  the  Mississippi. 

Mr.  Vail,  the  United  States  Consul  at  L'Orient  in 
France,  was  desirous  to  propose  the  matter  to  the 
National  Assembly.  Although  the  permission  relative 
to  the  Mississippi  was  at  length  granted,  Mr.  Fitch 
concluded  to  visit  France,  and  did  so  in  the  year  1793. 
But  the  civil  disorders  of  that  kingdom  prevented  the 
accomplishment  of  his  desires.  He  withdrew  to  Lon- 
don, and  by  working  his  passage  as  a  sailor  regained 
America,  broken  down  in  body  and  dejected  in  mind, 
and  disgusted  at  the  stupidity  of  a  generation  who 
could  not,  like  him,  comprehend  the  immeasurable 
benefits  of  the  application  of  steam  to  water-craft. 
In  1796,  lie  withdrew  to  his  lands  near  IJardstmvn, 
Kentucky,  which  he  found  in  the  occupation  of  others. 
In  1798  he  took  a  fatal  poison,  and  died  in  the  cham- 

*  New  York  ltevi'.'w,  Vol.  iv.  No.  7,  \>.  1  I- 


MEMORY   OF   JOHN   PITCH.  47 

ber  of  a  tavern,  attended  by  no  relative  or  friend  (his 
landlord  excepted),  and  was  buried  in  the  corner  of 
the  grave  yard,  in  presence  of  six  or  seven  persons, 
■without  a  stone  or  other  monument  to  mark  the  spot. 

The  fulfilment  of  our  design,  to  do  justice  to  this 
child  of  misfortune  and  forgetfulness,  would  require 
an  examination  of  the  claims  of  subsequent  inventors 
to  works  evidently  the  property  of  Fitch.  Fulton  had 
an  eulogist,  who,  while  the  earth  was  still  fresh  upon 
his  grave,  sounded  his  praises  to  the  world.  They  are 
known  wherever  a  steamboat  cleaves  the  water,  on 
every  shore  which  has  echoed  with  the  sound  of  its 
engine.  But  Fitch  had  none.  It  was  even  doubtful, 
until  within  about  two  years,  whether  his  grave  could 
be  identified.  His  manuscripts  were  sealed  up  in  the 
year  1792,  with  directionsnot  to  be  broken  until  thirty 
years  after  his  death.  He  had  withdrawn  from  the 
scene  of  his  sorrows  and  his  triumphs  to  an  obscure 
village  of  the  remote  West.  He  was  in  his  grave,  and 
his  relatives  were  ignorant  of  the  time,  place,  and 
manner  of  his  death. 

The  first  model  of  his  boat  at  Warminster  was 
destroyed  or  lost.  The  patent  was  buried  in  the  ar- 
chives of  the  office,  until  it  was  consumed  by  fire.  His 
contemporaries  and  friends,  though  retaining  a  cher- 
ished remembrance  of  his  genius  and  integrity,  were 
scattered  throughout  the  land,  advanced  in  life,  or, 
already  like  him,  in  the  grave.  In  1805,  a  model, 
made  by  him  in  Bardstown,  was  burnt  in  the  house 
where  he  died.  In  1842,  the  pamphlets  and  papers 
left  to  one  of  his  executors,  the  Honorable  John 
Rowan,  were  likewise  consumed  by  fire.  Oblivion  in 
every  form  seems  to  have  settled  upon  his  memory  in  a 
cloud  of  thick  darkness,  which  we  hope  is  about  to  be 
dispersed. 

In  1828,  the  Honorable  Robert  Wickliffe,  then  a 


48  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

member  of  the  Senate  of  Kentucky,  who  had  seen 
Mr.  Fitch  while  at  Bardstown,  and  knew  the  impor- 
tant services  he  had  rendered  to  mankind,  proposed  a 
resolution  authorizing  a  plain  monument  to  be  erected 
over  his  mortal  remains.  It  was  referred,  on  the  8th 
of  February,  1828,  to  a  select  committee,  who  made 
no  report,  and  the  project  was  allowed  to  remain  with- 
out farther  notice  until  the  winter  of  1843-4.  At  the 
time  of  Mr.  Wickliffe's  resolution  the  manuscripts  at 
Philadelphia  were  not  opened.  Little  or  nothing  ma- 
terial was  known  of  the  history  of  the  man  whose 
name  it  was  proposed  to  distinguish.  It  is  not  strange 
that  no  interest  was  excited,  no  action  had,  and  that 
the  shades  of  forgetfulness  were  suffered  to  gather 
again  about  his  memory.  At  the  last  session  of  the 
legislature  of  the  State  of  his  adoption,  a  memorial, 
embracing  an  abstract  of  his  inventions,  successes, 
eccentricities,  and  trials,  was  presented  at  the  last 
moment  of  their  sitting,  reviving  the  subject  of  a 
monumental  notice.  This  will  be  found  on  the  print- 
ed Journals  of  the  House  for  1844,  p.  588,  having 
received  no  action  for  want  of  time.  With  Mr.  Fitch 
ir  was  a  favorite  desire  that  his  bones  might  be  laid 
on  the  banks  of  the  Ohio.  In  a  moment  of  despon- 
dency, while  pursuing  his  gigantic  undertaking  at 
Philadelphia,  he  exclaims:  "Why  these  earnest  soli- 
citations and  excruciating  anxieties?  Why  not  leave 
them,  and  retire  to  rest  under  the  shady  elms  on  th» 
fair  banks  of  Ohio,  and  there  eat  my  coarse  but  sweet 
bread  of  industry  and  eontcnt,  and,  when  I  have  done, 
to  have  my  body  laid  in  the  soft,  warm,  and  loamy 
soil  of  the  banks,  my  name  inscribed  on  a  neighbor- 
ing poplar,  that  future  generations,  when  traversing 
the  mighty  waters  of  the  West,  may  find  my  grassy 
turf."  And  still  later  he  breaks  forth  in  the  same 
poetical  strain,  referring  to  the  position  of  his  grave, 


MEMORY    OP   JOHN    FITCTI.  49 

and  hoping  that  it  may  be  made  on  the  shores  of  some 
of  the  waters  of  the  West,  in  order  that  the  "song 
of  the  boatman  might  enliven  the  stillness  of  his 
resting  place,  and  the  music  of  the  steam  engine  sooth 
his  troubled  spirit." 

In  case  the  efforts  to  secure  monumental  honors 
for  his  remains  by  the  act  of  public  bodies  shall  fail, 
there  is  a  band  of  surviving  friends  who  are  prepared 
to  do,  and  have  resolved  that  it  shall  be  done. 

The  rubbish  of  forty-five  years  has  almost  oblite- 
rated his  grave,  and  the  tide  of  time  has  carried  the 
principal  part  of  his  contemporaries  into  the  same 
eternity  with  himself.  But  a  few  still  live,  and  with 
them  the  sense  of  his  merits,  the  remembrance  of  his 
achievements,  and  the  bitter  sorrows  that  were  his 
rewards,  are  not  obliterated  or  even  dimmed  by  age. 
It  is  expected  that,  before  many  years  have  passed, 
justice,  though  tardy  in  its  arrival,  will  be  at  last  ren- 
dered, and  his  genius  will  receive  the  homage,  as  his 
misfortunes  will  the  commiseration,  of  his  country- 
fnen ;  that  those  who  navigate  the  noble  rivers  of  the 
West  will,  from  the  decks  of  numberless  boats,  yet 
witness  upon  some  commanding  headland  of  the  Ohio 
a  neat,  white,  and  conspicuous  column  which  shall 
mark  the  repose  of  Fitch. 

Delay,  instead  of  operating  as  a  bar  to  the  per- 
formance of  such  a  duty,  instead  of  precluding  by 
limitation  the  obligations  of  justice,  gives  new  force 
to  those  obligations.  Other  men  have  been  rewarded 
for  similar  inventions  'by  the  enjoyment  of  universal 
celebrity,  Fitch  by  universal  neglect.  In  the  Congress 
of  the  United  States  and  in  public  orations,  in  State 
legislatures,  and  even  in  foreign  countries,  how  often 
and  how  honorably  has  the  name  of  Fulton  been  pro- 
nounced !  His  is  but  one  of  a  crowd  of  inventors 
whose  names  rush  upon  the  memory  when  the  steam 

5 


f>0  rttdiTTVE  essays. 

engine  or  the  steamboat  engages  our  thoughts.  There 
are  those  of  Savary  and  Newcomen,  of  Watt  and  Bol- 
ton, the  elder  and  the  younger  Stevens,  of  Rumsey  and 
Franklin1,  Stanhope  and  tivingston, — these  are  fa- 
miliar ;  but  where  is  the  name  of  Fitch?  While  the 
friends  of  Rumsey,  Evans,  and  Fulton  have  offered 
encomiums  upon  those  gifted  mechanics,  those  public 
benefactors, — while  the  legislature  of  the  nation  has 
been  moved  in  their  behalf  as  meritorious  citizens  and 
inventors,  and  the  treasury  of  the  nation  has  respond- 
ed her  gratitude  in  a  substantial  form,- — where  is  the 
orator,  the  voice,  or  the  petition,  that  has  presented 
the  claims  of  Fitch? 

The  reality  of  these  claims  will  appear  in  a  stronger 
light  by  comparing  more  closely  the  nature  of  his  ma- 
chine and  that  of  his  successors.  Practical  minds 
will  at  once  enquire  why  his  boat  was  not  brought 
into  immediate  use.  This  will  be  made  at  first  view 
the  test,  the  sole  test,  of  the  value  of  his  invention. 
We  are  now  tolerably  well  informed  of  what  that  in- 
vention was  ;  we  have  a  knowledge  of  what  in  it  was 
borrowed,  and  what  was  originated.  I  have  endea- 
vored to  present  fairly  what  had  been  done  up  to 
April,  1785.  From  every  thing  which  was  invented 
by  him  at  fliat  time?  Bernouilli,  Rumsey,  and  Frank- 
lin, were  as  far  as  possible ;  Raynal  and  Jouffroy 
were  almost  as  far.  Before  Watt  the  engine  was  but 
poorly  adapted  to  any  machinery :  Watt  had  never 
adapted  it  to  a  boat.  Twenty  years  after,  Watt  and 
Pulton  undertook  the  work,  and  found  it  a  most  diffi- 
cult and  doubtful  application. 

This  adaptation  was  effected  by  Fitch  in  1788. 
A  quarter  of  a  century  afterwards,  the  workshops  of 
America  could  not  furnish  an  engine  of  any  kind. 
Pitch  made  <»nc,  and  put  it  it  operation  in  1 T <s7    8, 

In  1807  a  steambat  was   run  from  New  York  to 


MEMORY   OP   JOHN    FITCH.  51 

Albany,  at  the  rate  of  four  and  seven-tenths  miles  an 
hour,  by  Robert  Fulton,  and  returned  at  the  rate  of 
Jive  miles  an  hour.  In  1788  a  steamboat  ran  upon 
the  Delaware  eighty  miles  in  a  "day,"  and  twenty 
miles  in  three  hours  and  ten  minutes,  which  was  built 
by  John  Fitch.  Both  had  an  engine  and  crank  mo- 
tion, and  both  had  shafts  or  axles.  At  the  end  of 
the  shafts  of  one  were  paddles,  at  the  end  of  the  other 
wheels.  Both  the  wheels  and  the  paddles  projected 
in  an  equally  cumbrous  manner  over  the  sides  of  the 
boat.  The  Perseverance,  with  thirty  passengers, 
made  six  and  one-third  miles  an  hour  ;  the  Clermont 
made  four  and  seven-tenths.  How  circumstances  and 
times  alter  cases !  The  trade  and  transportation  of 
the  Delaware  in  1788  were  limited,  and  the  roads 
along  her  banks  were  level.  The  Perseverance  and 
her  consorts  paid  no  dividends. 

The  trade  and  travel  of  the  Hudson  in  1807  were 
important,  and  the  journey  along  her  shores  rough, 
tedious,  and  forbidding.  The  Clermont,  at  a  speed 
almost  one^third  less,  procured  freight  and  passengers, 
and  by  the  test  of  profit  and  loss,  has  been  declared 
successful,  more  successful  than  her  predecessor  upon 
the  Delaware.  Had  they  started  together,  over  the 
same  course,  at  the  same  time,  the  Perseverance,  gain- 
ing one  mile  and  six-tenths  an  hour,  would  have  reached 
Albany  fifty-two^miles  in  advance..  Her  performances 
on  the  Delawa*£e  had  been  equal  to  that  nineteen 
years  before,  and  on  trial  in  the  harbor  had  shown  a 
speed  of  three  miles  greater  than  the  Clermont.  But. 
the  Perseverance  is  forgotten,  and  the  day  of  her 
triumph  also,  while  mankind  everywhere  within  the 
scope  of  civilization  remember  the  month  of  August, 
1807.  The  North  River  boats  continued  to  run,  pay 
dividends,  and  improve  during  the  life  of  the  monopoly 
of  Livingston  and  Fulton ;  but  at  its  expiration  their 


-")-  FUGITIVE   ESS.W> 

steamers  had  but  just  acquired  the  speed  of  eight 
miles  an  hour.  Stevens  put  them  up  at  once  to  thir- 
teen or  thirteen  and  a  half,  being  a  gain  of  five  miles 
an  hour,  or  a  greater  increase  than  the  actual  speed 
of  the  first  class  of  boats.  In  the  contemplation  af 
Fitch  something  equal  to,  or  exceeding  eight  miles, 
was  necessary  to  success.  In  practice  upon  the  Hud- 
son, five  miles  secured  an  immortal  name.  Was  it 
for  the  invention?  Mr.  Fulton,  a  modest  and  just 
man,  never  claimed  it.  Was  it  for  the  engine?  This 
was  the  work  of  Watt.  Was  it  for  the  crank,  the 
shaft,  or  the  axle?  The  New  York  committee  Bay 
they  were  all  found  in  Mr.  Fitch's  Patent  of  1791, 
and  Noah  Webster,  Esq,,  says  that  in  1793  Mr.  Vail 
presented  all  of  Mr.  Fitch's  papers  to  Mr.  Fulton  for 
examination.*  Was  it  for  the  wheels?  They  had 
been  seen  and  attached  to  boats  more  than  half  a  cen- 
tury, and  had  been  tried  repeatedly  within  a  quarter 
of  a  century.t  Was  it  for  speed?  In  this  important 
particular  there  was  a  retrograde  of  one-third.  For 
convenience  or  strength  ?  These  were  subsequent  im- 
provements.    For  perceiving  in  advance  of  his  day 

•  (Inihani's  Magazine,  July,  1S-1  >,  p.  108. 

f  The  Philadelphia  inventor  1i:kI  tried  them,  unci  found  that  a 
given  power  acting  upon  paddles  produced  more  velocity.  The 
paddles  fulfilled  the  conditions  now  obtained  by  an  enlargement 
of  the  wheel.  It  saved  the  expenditure  of  power,  which  was  lost 
by  forcing  the  buckets  fiat-wise  into  the  water,  and  lifting  them 
from  it.  It  is  remarkable  that  the  angle  of  Fitch's  paddles  with 
the  water,  as  they  were  dropped  into  it,  correspond  very  nearly 
with  that  of  the  buckets  of  a  thirty  foot  wheel.  The  principles 
of  his  conclusions  upon  this  angle  are  thus  verified  to  be  more 
correct  than  those  of  the  early  wheel-boat  builders.  His  results 
and  the  results  of  the  best  constructed  modern  boats  were  the 
same, — they  produced  the  greatest  velocity  with  the  least  power. 
The  difference  in  construction  is  not  a  change  of  the  principle. 
The  wheel  is  more  firm,  and  less  liable  therefore  to  injury,  but  the 
force  of  the  resisting  surface  is  the  same,  applied  In  all  small 
wheels  at  a  less  advantageous  angle.  The  first  boats  of  the  Hud- 
son had  wheels  of  twelve  to  sixteen  feet  in  diameter 


MEMORY   OF   JOHN   FITCH.  53 

the  advantages  to  commerce,  and  especially  the  com- 
merce of  western  rivers?  This  subject  had  been  pre- 
sented to  the  public  in  every  form,  to  an  incredulous 
Congress,  to  city  authorities,  and  State  legislatures, 
by  Mr.  Fitch,  during  ten  long  years  of  importunity 
and  disregard.  Was  it  for  predicting  a  future  navi- 
gation of  the  sea  by  "packets  and  armed  vessels ? " 
Fitch  had  recorded  that  prophecy  in  his  letter  to 
Franklin,  October  12,  1785,*  and  to  Rittenhouse  in 
1792.f 

As  an  inventor  Mr.  Fulton's  genius  shone  most 
conspicuously,  not  in  ordinary  steamboats,  but  in  sub- 
marine and  marine  warfare, — a  display  measurably 
forgotten  by  his  countrymen.  It  was  upon  torpedoes 
and  submerged  batteries,  upon  steam  frigates  and 
cable  cutters,  that  his  mechanical  talents  and  his 
science  exerted  itself  with  most  splendid  effect.  Cir- 
cumstances beyond  the  control  of  man  rendered  the 
other  branch  of  his  study  most  conspicuous.  But  why 
did  not  Fitch  and  his  companions  occupy  the  Hud- 
son ?  He  was  not  compelled  by  the  New  York  sta- 
tute of  1788  to  put  boats  in  motion  within  that  State, 
as  he  was  in  Virginia.  His  efforts  and  hopes  were 
first  directed  to  the  latter  State,  and  we  have  seen 
how  sadly  they  were  frustrated  by  the  loss  of  one 
of  two  boats,  required  by  law,  at  the  last  moment, 
when  they  could  not  be  replaced.  We  have  seen  how, 
at  this  hour  of  trial,  his  resources,  his  health,  en- 
couragement, and  future  prospects,  all  failed  at  once. 
For  all  valuable  purposes  this  was  the  death  of  Fitch. 
His  prolonged  existence  was  of  no  further  benefit  to 
his  invention,  yet  it  was  a  continuous  scene  of  grief 
so  intense  that  it  can  not  be  recited  without  exciting 
sympathy  in  every  breast, 

*  Life  and  Writings  of  Franklin  Vol.  x.      f  Lives  of  Eminent 
Mechanics,  p.  33. 


54  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 


EARLY   DISCOVERIES   IN   THE   MISSISSIPPI 
VALLEY. 

[Cincinnati  Directory,  184-1.] 


In  the  historical  details  of  the  separate  cities  of 
the  West  it  would  be  necessary,  in  case  we  should 
ascend  to  its  remotest  occupation,  to  repeat  many 
events,  some  of  them  many  times.  For  instance,  a 
perfect  history  of  the  city  of  Pittsburgh  would  em- 
brace the  annals  of  the  early  French  discoverers  ; 
New  Orleans  is  in  the  same  condition,  having  been 
first  occupied  by  the  same  people  in  their  early  enter- 
prises in  North  America ;  Natchez  and  St.  Louis, 
Vincennes  and  Detroit,  have  the  same  origin.  From 
all  these  places  we  shall  procure  a  compact  yet  sub- 
stantially complete  record  of  their  annals  and  their 
advance,  through  the  lapse  of  many  generations,  to 
the  rank  of  important  commercial  cities. 

To  avoid  as  much  as  possible  the  necessity  of  a 
tedious  repetition,  we  offer  a  condensed  view  of  these 
discoveries,  as  they  are  said  to  have  been  made,  in 
the  Mississippi  Valley.  This  rapid  sketch  will  em- 
brace all  the  region  now  called  by  the  name  of  the 
West,  through  which  trade  has  established  its  chan- 
nels, and  will  therefore  answer  for  reference  in  all 
cases  where  the  reader  is  desirous  to  trace  the  history 
of  the  city  of  his  residence  back  to  the  first  appear- 
ance of  civilized  man  upon  its  shores. 


EARLY  DISCOVERIES  IN  THE  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY.      55 


THE   SPANISH  ADVENTURERS. 

The  Spanish  nation,  among  other  recollections  of 
the  days  of  their  pride  and  power,  refer  to  the  dis- 
covery of  the  Mississippi  as  the  result  of  their  enter- 
prise and  courage.  They  relate  the  fact  that  Fer- 
dinand De  Soto,  a  companion  of  Pizarro,  and  emulous 
of  his  fame, — a  man  who  had  been  Governor  of  Cuba, 
— landed  at  Espirito  Santo,  in  Florida,  in  May,  1539, 
with  nine  hundred  men  and  three  hundred  horses. 

With  a  part  of  this  force  he  penetrated  the  forests 
so  far  as  to  strike  the  Mississippi  at  the  lower  Qhick- 
asaw  Bluffs,  in  1541.  They  cross  the  river,  and 
journey  up  along  its  western  shore  in  search  of 
wealthy  cities  and  rich  mines  of  gold,  probably  as  far 
as  New  Madrid.  Parties  of  Spaniards  went  onwards 
towards  the  Missouri,  but  found  nothing  of  the  wealth 
of  which  they  were  in  search.  The  little  army  struck 
into  the  country  on  the  west,  and  finally  rested  for 
the  winter  on  the  banks  of  the  Washita.  In  1542  they 
returned  to  the  river  Mississippi,  at  the  mouth  of  Red 
river,  called  the  country  of  the  G-uachoya.  On  the 
21st  of  May  De  Soto  died,  and  his  body,  as  some 
authors  say,  wrapped  in  a  cloak,  and  others  enclosed 
in  an  oak  log,  was  sunk  in  the  waters  of  the  Missis- 
sippi. The  Spaniards  liberated  their  slaves,  and  in 
the  next  spring  had  prepared  barges  for  descending 
the  river. 

A  large  number  of  these  warlike  adventurers 
perished  miserably  in  combats  with  the  Indian  tribes, 
by  starvation,  and  by  the  fatality  of  the  climate  ;  but 
enough  of  them  survived  to  relate  their  travels,  and 
to  furnish  their  countrymen  with  a  description  of  the 
Lower  Mississippi. 

Whether  this  relation  was  known  in  France  at  the 


56  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

moment  when  her  people  took  up  the  cause  of  west- 
ern discovery,  we  can  not  at  this  remote  day  satisfac- 
torily determine.  Her  foremost  and  most  enthusiastic 
travellers  in  the  new  world  leave  us  to  infer  that  their 
first  knowledge  of  the  existence  of  that  river  was  de- 
rived from  the  natives  who  inhabited  the  Upper  Lakes. 
But  it  is  a  rational  supposition  that  they  may  have 
heard  of  the  great  river  of  the  Spaniards,  aid  yet 
regarded  the  stream  which  the  Indians  of  Lake  Huron 
marked  out  in  their  rude  style  upon  the  ground  as 
another  river,  occupying  a  more  westerly  position,  of 
greater  length,  and  having  a  different  connection  with 
the  ocean.  The  French  therefore  claim  the  honor  of 
discovering  the  Mississippi. 

THE    FRENCH   DISCOVERERS. 

This  people  approached  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  by 
way  of  the  St.  Lawrence  and  the  lakes.  In  the 
fall  of  the  year  1535,  in  the  reign  of  Francis  I,  a 
Frenchman  by  the  name  of  Cartier  ascended  the 
river  St.  Lawrence  as  far  as  the  island  of  Montreal. 
Six  years  afterwards,  a  fort  or  trading  post  was  estab- 
lished at  Quebec,  destined  to  abandonment  in  a  short 
time.  The  site  of  the  old  fort  was  re-visited  by  Chain- 
plain  in  1603,  and  in  1608  an  association  of  merchants 
of  Rouen,  St.  Malo,  and  La  JiocheUr,  commenced 
the  city  which  lias  since  risen  to  such  commercial  im- 
portance. In  1620  it  was  well  established,  and  a  good 
fort  erected  there. 

During  the  year  1625  the  Jesuit  missionaries,  who 
had  already  appeared  on  the  banks  of  the  St.  Law- 
rence, carried  the  cross  to  the  shores  of  Lake  Huron, 
and  in  1634  Daniel  and  Brebeauf  established  a  per- 
manent missionary  station  upon  its  shores. 

In  1641  two  missionaries,  llamboult  and  Juugcs, 


EA11LY  DISCOVERIES  IN  THE  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY.      57 

arrived  at  the  Falls  of  St.  Mary's,  and  found  there 
two  hundred  Wadowessies,  or  Sioux,  disposed  to  re- 
ceive the  gospel. 

i  From  thence,  these  devoted  ministers  of  the 
\cross  pressed,  in  considerable  numbers;  into  the  In- 
dian country ;  offering  the  rites  of  the  Catholic  re- 
ligion, baptism  and  absolution,  to  all  such  as  would 
receive  them. 

The  French  traders  travelled  in  company  with  the 
Holy  Fathers,  gathering  rich  cargoes  of  northern 
furs  from  the  native  tribes  along  the  lakes. 

The  Abbe  Mesnard  preached  repentance  to  the 
Sioux,  at  Kewena  Bay,  on  Lake  Superior,  in  1660 ; 
but,  desirous  to  spread  his  faith  still  farther  along 
these  inhospitable  shores,  he  departed  for  Chegoime- 
gon,  and  perished  in  the  woods  near  Portage  Lake. 

Five  years  afterwards,  Father  Allouez  reached 
Chegoimegon,  and  erected  a  chapel  there.  The  Chip- 
pewTas,  Hurons  (or  Wyandots),  the  Sioux, — the  Illi- 
nois and  the  Ottawas,  inseparable  allies  of  the  Hu- 
rons,— were  at  this  time  (October,  1665)  in  grand 
council  at  this  place.  They  spoke  of  a  great  river, 
which  they  called  Mcssipi. 

Nicholas  Perrot,  a  layman,  and  authorized  by  the 
French  Intendant  of  Canada,  assembled  the  nations 
at  St.  Mary's,  in  1671.  After  much  friendly  inter- 
course at  St.  Mary's,  Perrot,  Marquette,  and  Dablon 
proceed  to  explore  the  western  shore  of  Lake  Michi- 
gan ;  and  Perrot  succeeds  in  reaching  the  present  site 
of  the  city  of  Chicago.  Joliet,  a  French  officer,  was 
commissioned  to  find  the  "  great  river  ;"  and  in  1763, 
being  accompanied  by  Father  Marquette,  two  Indian 
guides,  and  five  voyageurs,  they  ascended  the  Fox 
river  of  Green  Bay.  On  the  tenth  of  June,  they 
drew  their  canoes  across  the  Winnebago  portage,  and 
launched  them  ripon  the  current  of  the  "  Ouisconsin." 


58  FUGITIVE     ESSAYS. 

The  aborigines  depicted  this  stream  as  dangerous  in 
the  extreme ;  not  only  by  reason  of  its  quicksands, 
whirlpools,  and  rapids,  but  there,  and  in  the  great 
river  itself,  dreadful  demons  had  taken  up  their 
abode,  who  caught  up  all  passengers  in  their  horrid 
embrace.  The  adventurers  persisted,  however,  in 
their  voyage,  and,  in  seven  days,  floated  out  into  the 
broad  channel  of  the  Mississippi,  unhurt.  Here, 
having  accomplished  the  glorious  object  of  their  mis- 
sion in  safety,  they  offer  thanks  to  Almighty  God  for 
his  protection,  standing  on  the  banks  of  the  mightiest 
river  of  the  world.  On  its  shores,  and  especially 
along  the  borders  of  the  Wiskonsin,  they  beheld  such 
scenery  as  no  traveller  had  seen  before  them — the 
rolling  upland  prairie,  spread  out  beyond  the  sweep 
of  vision,  on  every  side  a  meadow  clothed  in  the  deep- 
eft  green.  They  saw  every  variety  of  game  feeding 
on  the  hill  sides,  which  was  easily  brought  down  by 
their  muskets ;  and  having  feasted  their  bodies  upon 
the  fish,  fowl,  and  wild  meat  of  the  region,  and  their 
eyes  with  the  surpassing  beauty  of  the  great  valley, 
the  threshhold  of  which  only  was  passed,  they  com- 
mitted themselves  to  the  guidance  of  the  newly  found 
river  of  their  desires. 

They  floated  onward  to  the  mouth  of  the  Ohio, 
which  they  call  the  "  Ouabache"  where  they  found  a 
band  of  the  Shawnees  residing.  They  even  continued 
to  sail  downward,  to  the  mouth  of  the  Arkansas ;  but 
here  the  expedition  terminate  1. 

Joliet  returned  to  Quebec,  by  way  of  the  Illinois 
river  and  Chicago  creek,  to  lay  the  results  of  the 
journey  before  his  patron,  the  Intendant  Talon.  Ta- 
lon was  overjoyed  to  learn  that  his  Xouvelle  France, 
in  addition  to  lakes  of  greater  extent  and  purer  water 
than  any  in  the  known  world,  embraced  a  luxuriant 
domain,  equal  to  all  Europe,  ami  rivers  un«>n  a  scale 


EARLY  DISCOVERIES  IN  THE  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY.      59 

of  greater  magnificence  thati  the  other  displays  of 
nature  in  this  hidden  world. 

Marquette  remained  with  the  Miamies  about  tho 
south  end  of  Lake  Michigan  until  May,  1675,  incul- 
cating the  precepts  of  the  Gospel.  He  was  already 
advanced  in  life,  and  exhausted  by  travel  and  expo- 
sure. Coasting  along  the  eastern  shore  of  the  lake, 
he  steered  his  canoe  into  the  mouth  of  a  creek  which 
now  bears  his  name.  He  landed  upon  the  shore  and 
retired  amid  the  trees,  fragrant  with  the  buds  and 
flowers  of  spring,  to  pray  in  secret,  knelt  down  upon 
the  ground,  and  was  soon  after  found  dead  at  the 
same  place. 

But  mankind  have  awarded  to  the  Chevalier  La 
Salle  the  merit  of  making  the  first  thorough  explora- 
tion of  the  Mississippi,  and  of  establishing  settle- 
ments upon  its  waters.  He  constructed  the  first 
vessel  which  spread  her  white  wings  upon  the  waters 
of  Lake  Erie.  The  Griffin,  a  sail-craft  of  sixty  tons, 
was  launched  at  the  mouth  of  Tonewanda  Creek,  on 
the  7th  of  August,  1679.  She  pursued  her  course 
through  the  lake,  the  Detroit  river,  and  the  Lake  of 
the  Hurons,  to  Mackinaw,  on  the  peninsula  of  Michi- 
gan, where  a  trading  post  and  fort  were  established. 

The  Griffin  was  loaded  with  furs  on  her  return,  to 
the  great  joy  of  Monsieur  La  Salle.  In  her  were  the 
results  of  many  years  of  incredible  exertion,  his  en- 
tire fortune,  and  with  it  the  resources  that  were  to 
sustain  his  enterprise.  She  foundered  on  Lake  Mi- 
chigan. The  adventurer  took  canoes,  and  coasted 
down  the  eastern  shore  of  Lake  Michigan.  He  as- 
cended the  St.  Joseph's,  and  finding  a  low  swampy 
tract  which  communicated  with  a  southern  stream, 
he  transported  their  light  vessels  into  the  Kankakee, 
and  down  it  to  the  Illinois.  On  its  banks,  they  built 
the  fort  of  Oreveeceur,  or  the  "broken  heart j"  signi- 


60  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

fying  the  forlorn  state  of  their  feelings  at  the  time. 
Here  they  winter  in  1679-80,  and  await  the  return 
of  the  Griffin. 

It  was  not  until  1682  that  La  Salle  himself  de- 
scended the  river,  and  determined  to  find  its  discharge 
into  the  ocean. 

At  the  Chickasaw  Bluffs  he  erected  a  cabin,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Arkansas  raised  a  cross,  and,  sailing 
with  the  principal  channel,  on  the  9th  of  April  he 
saw  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Here  he  planted  the  arms 
of  France  in  token  of  possession,  and  returned  by  way 
of  Crevecoeur  and  the  lakes  to  the  city  of  Paris. 

To  the  French  court  the  affair  appeared  to  be  of 
high  importance.  It  was  determined  that  the  "  Mes- 
cliasebe"  should  become  the  residence  of  Frenchmen, 
and  La  Salle  was  provided  with/o^r  vessels,  one  hun- 
dred soldiers,  and  one  hundred  and  eighty  artisans, 
to  effect  this  object. 

They  reach  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  but  pass  the 
mouths  of  the  Great  River  without  being  able  to  find 
them,  and  landing  finally  at  the  Bay  of  Matagorda, 
erect  Fort  St.  Louis,  in  June,  1685.  After  suffering 
at  this  post  a  year  and  a  half,  the  Chevalier  departs 
by  land  in  search  of  the  "fatal  river,"  with  a  com- 
pany of  sixteen  men.  Twenty-four,  the  remnant  of 
his  armament,  remain  at  the  Fort.  On  the  Trinity 
River  one  of  his  men  kills  his  nephew,  and  when  La 
Salle  inquires  after  the  young  man,  they  strike  him 
to  the  earth,  where  he  dies. 

But  the  system  of  colonization  was  not  abandoned 
on  account  of  the  loss  of  its  pioneer.  La  Salle  had 
established  a  fort  and  a  trading  post  on  the  St.  Jo- 
seph's of  Lake  Michigan,  called  Fort  Miami  :  and 
his  party,  soon  after  his  arrival  on  the  Illinois,  located 
a  station  on  the  Kaskaskias.  Monsieur  D'IbemUe 
reached  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  in  1699,  as  the 


EARLY  DISCOVERIES  IN  THE  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY.      61 

successor  of  La  Salle,  built  a  fort,  and  ascended  to 
fche  village  of  the  Natchez.  As  he  crossed  the  low 
ground  after  landing,  and  walked  up  the  hill  in  view 
of  the  Indian  town,  he  was  so  much  delighted  with 
the  beauty  of  the  spot  that  he  immediately  traced  out 
a  fort,  and  called  it  Rosalie,  after  the  Duchess  of 
Pontchar  train. 

In  returning  he  met  an  English  ship  of  twelve 
guns,  claiming  for  the  crown  of  Great  Britain  the 
entire  region  which  the  French  had  traversed.  They 
(the  English)  insisted  that  Cabot  had  discovered  the 
entire  coast  of  Florida,  as  this  region  was  then  called. 
But  being  at  once  ordered  to  depart,  they  did  so, 
threatening,  as  they  went,  to  return  in  the  following 
year  with  force,  and  drive  away  these  French  inter- 
lopers. But  they  did  not  come,  and  the  next  year 
more  Frenchmen  arrived,,  who  made  the  first  settle- 
ment at  the  Isle  of  Dauphin.  In  1712  this  place  was 
abandoned,  but  "Maubile"  and  Biloxi  continued. 
This  was  the  year  of  Orozafs  grant,  bounded  on  the 
north  by  the  Illinois. 

Crozart  resigned  his  monopoly  in  1717,  and  John 
Law's  great  "  Company  of  the  Indies"  take  posses- 
sion of  Louisiana,  as  Monsieur  D'Iberville  chose  to 
call  it.  The  Governor,  M.  Bienville,  selected  New 
Orleans  as  a  post  of  trade  and  defence.  In  1719, 
France  and  Spain  being  at  open  war,  the  French  fall 
upon  Pensacola,  a  Spanish  town,  which  they  capture 
and  occupy  ;  but  the  Spaniards  repossess  themselves 
of  the  place,  and  the  French  colonial  troops  again 
invest  and  carry  the  fort.  Hitherto  the  Council  Gen- 
eral of  the  colony  had  been  fixed  at  Biloxi,  but  in 
1721  the  officials  and  their  attaches  removed  to  New 
Orleans,  a  place  which,  from  that  hour,  has  not  ceased 
to  be  a  capital. 

New  France  was  therefore  divided  into  two  pro- 
6 


62  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

vinces,— Canada  and  Louisiana  ;  but  what  constituted 
New  France,  geographically  considered,  was  by  no 
means  reduced  to  a  certainty.  By  the  treaty  of 
Utrecht,  in  1713,  the  French  king  had  yielded  New- 
foundland and  Hudson's  Bay  to  the  English.  The 
latter  colony  began  at  a  point  or  promontory  of  the 
Atlantic,  in  latitude  58°  30'  north,  thence  to  Lake 
Mistassin,  thence  south-west  to  the  49th  parallel, 
and  with  it  west  indefinitely.  New  York  claimed  all 
north  of  the  40th  degree,  and  west  of  New  England 
and  the  Ottawa  river,  even  to  the  49th  parallel,  Vir- 
ginia all  between  36|°  and  40°. 

The  French  had  planted  a  colony  at  Port  Royal, 
on  the  Carolina  coast,  in  1652,  which,  being  aban- 
doned, was  revived  in  1654,  as  a  refuge  for  the  per- 
secuted Huguenots  or  Calvinists.  But  Melendez 
D'Aviles  of  Spain,  armed  with  a  commission  to  destroy 
all  heretics,  fell  upon  Fort  Carolina  and  took  it,  Sep- 
tember 25,  1655. 

Because  Melendez  had  massacred  all  the  Protes- 
tants taken  at  Fort  Carolina,  Dominic  De  G-ourges, 
a  Calvinist  of  Gascony,  determined  upon  revenge,  and 
providing  himself  with  three  ships  and  one  hundred 
and  fifty  men,  he  sailed  to  Florida,  and  surprised 
three  Spanish  ships  at  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Matheo, 
by  us  called  St.  Johns.  He  repaired  thence  to  Fort 
Carolina,  and  took  possession  of  the  post.  Melendez 
having  massacred  the  Huguenots,  as  he  said,  not  as 
Frenchmen,  but  as  Calvinists,  De  Gourges  hung  his 
prisoners  upon  a  tree,  and  attached  to  it  a  notice  that 
they  were  not  executed  as  Spaniards  or  mariners,  but 
as  pirates,  robbers,  and  murderers.  But  France 
formally  relinquished  the  whole  South  Atlantic  coast, 
and  Spain  resumed  it  as  far  north  as  Cape  Fear. 

In  1748  the  French  insisted  upon  the  following  line 
as  dividing  them  from  the  British  colonies:  —  Begin- 


EARLY  DISCOVERIES  IN  THE  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY.      63 

ning  at  the  mouth  of  the  Apalachicola  river  and  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  thence  up  the  same  to  its  source, 
and  with  the  Allegheny  ridge  to  the  sources  of  the 
Susquehannah,  thence  in  a  straight  line  to  Fort  Co- 
hasser  on  the  Connecticut  river,  near  Long  Falls,  and 
from  this  point  north-eastward,  parallel  to  the  St. 
Lawrence,  to  the  Kennebec,  with  it  to  the  sea,  and 
across  the  Bay  of  Fundy  to  Cape  Canso. 

The  English  offered  to  accept  of  a  boundary, — for 
the  north  the  lakes  and  St.  Lawrence,  and  the  west  a 
line  from  Presque  Isle  on  Lake  Erie,  through  French 
Creek  to  the  Apalachian  range,  as  claimed  by  the 
French  themselves.  But  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle 
was  signed,  and  by  it  nothing  was  settled  respecting 
their  colonial  limits. 

Thus  the  war  of  1754  came  on  without  any  fixed 
understanding  of  boundary  ;  in  fact,  it  occurred  prin- 
cipally in  consequence  of  the  common  title  set  up  by 
the  two  nations  to  the  Ohio  country.  The  "  Ohio 
Company"  was  authorized  by  the  British  Parliament, 
in  1749,  to  locate  600,000  acres  on  the  Ohio  and  its 
waters ;  and  to  have  an  exclusive  trade  with  the 
Indians. 

Christopher  Gist,  their  principal  agent,  with  his 
surveyors,  entered  the  country  in  1751,  and  explored 
the  Great  Miami.  In  1752  he  established  a  trading 
post  and  temporary  defences  on  this  river,  at  the 
mouth  of  Loramie's  Creek,  of  which  the  French  soon 
had  information,  and  came  with  an  armed  force  to 
capture  the  station.  This  they  accomplished  very 
easily,  took  the  English  prisoners,  killed  fourteen 
Piankcshaws  who  sustained  them,  and  carried  the 
goods  collected  there  to  their  forts  on  the  Miami  of 
the  lakes.  And  to  prevent  the  Ohio  Company  real- 
izing their  expectations,  they  took  possession  of  a  new 
route,   covering  it  with   posts.     From   Presque  Isle 


64  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

they  made  a  portage  to  French  Creek,  and  erected  a 
fort  upon  it.  At  its  mouth,  on  the  Allegheny,  they 
construct  Fort  Venango,  and  provided  it  with  a  Lr;»r- 
rison.  The  Governor  of  Virginia,  regarding  those 
posts  as  clearly  within  his  colony,  considered  the 
proceeding  as  nothing  less  than  an  invasion,  and,  to 
to  enquire  into  the  matter,  sent  George  Washington, 
in  the  fall  of  1753,  with  a  letter  to  St.  Pierre,  the 
commandant  at  Fort  Du  Beuf,  on  French  Creek. 

In  the  spring  Governor  Dinwiddie  raised  a  few 
men,  and  ordered  them  to  construct  a  fort  at  the 
mouths  of  the  Monongahela  and  the  Allegheny  rivers. 
Ensign  Ward  and  forty  soldiers  had  scarcely  begun 
to  cut  pickets  when  Monsieur  Contreceur  descended 
the  Allegheny,  accompanied  by  a  formidable  body  of 
Indian  and  French  troops.  They  took  possession  of 
the  Virginians  as  prisoners,  and  built  Fort  Du  Quesne. 
The  war  may  now  be  said  to  have  commenced.  It 
resulted  in  the  treaty  of  Paris,  in  1763,  by  which 
France  ceded  to  England  .all  her  claims  and  terri- 
tories in  North  America  east  of  the  Mississippi  to  the 
river  Iberville  and  Lake  Pontchartrain. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  war  the  French  had  in 
possession^rthirty-eight  garrisons  and  trading  posts, 
located  as  follows:  — 

Beginning  at  the  north,  at  the  head  of  the  Bay 
of  Fundy,  Fort  Clrignccto. 

A  fort  at  the  head  of  Bay  Verte,  on  the  opposite 
side  of  the  Peninsula  of  New  Brunswick. 

Fort  St.  John,  mouth  of  St.  John's  river. 

Cohasset,  on  the  Connecticut,  below  Long  Falls. 

Fortifications  around  Quebec. 

Fort  Sorel,  on  the  St.  Lawrence,  at  the  mouth  of 
Sorel  River,  west  side. 

Fort  Chambli,  on  Lake  Champlain,  at  the  head  of 
Sorel  river. 

Fort  Frederick,  or  Crown  Point. 


EARLY  DISCOVERIES  IN  THE  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY.      65 

Frontenac,  near  Kingston,  and  a  fort  at  the 
portage  between  the  Ottawa  river  and  Lake  Abbit- 
tibis,  near  Lake  Simcoe. 

At  Niagara,  mouth  of  Niagara  river,  east  side. 

Fort  Erie,  opposite  Buffalo ;  a  fort  at  Presque 
Isle,  now  Erie,  Pa. ;  another  at  the  end  of  the  portage 
to  French  Creek,  called  Le  Beuf ;  Fort  Venango,  at 
its  mouth  on  the  Allegheny,  then  called  the  Ohio. 

Fort  Du  Quesne,  at  the  forks  of  the  Ohio. 

Fort  Sandusky,  near  Sandusky  city. 

Fort  of  the  Miamihas  (Miamies)  on  the  Maumee, 
not  far  from  Defiance ;  Fort  Pontchartrain,  at  De- 
troit ;  St.  Joseph's,  on  the  river  St.  Joseph's,  of  Lake 
Michigan,  some  miles  from  the  Lake ;  one  at  Mack- 
inaw, on  the  main-land,  south  of  the  island  ;  one  at 
St.  Francis  Xavier,  a  short  distance  above  Green 
Bay,  on  the  Fox  River ;  Fort  La  Roche,  and  fort  of 
the  Miamies  on  the  Illinois,  near  each  other  on  op- 
posite sides  of  the  river,  above  Lake  Peoria ;  Fort 
Orleans,  on  an  island  in  the  "Missuri,"  above  Grand 
river. 

Fort  St.  Louis,  nearly  opposite  Cahokia. 

Fort  Chartres,  a  permanent  work  near  Kaskas- 
kias. 

A  stockade  at  the  mouth  of  the  Wabash  and 
mouth  of  the  Ohio. 

Fort  Massac,  on  the  Ohio,  and  Fort  Vincents,  on 
the  Wabash;  the  fort  of  the  "Ouatanons,"  at  the 
portage  from  the  Wabash  to  the  Miami  of  the  lakes, 
above  Eel  river.  Some  authorities  place  a  post  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Scioto,  on  the  Kentucky  side. 
There  was  a  station  near  St.  Mary's,  in  the  county 
of  Mercer,  Ohio,  at  the  portage  between  the  St. 
Mary's  and  the  Great  Miami.  Fort  Kappa,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  St.  Francis,  Mississippi  (southern  bank), 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Arkansas,  on  the  north  bank, 
6* 


66  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

and  stations  up  the  river.  Fort  Rosalie  at  Natchez, 
Fort  Balise  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  a  fort  on 
Isle  Dauphin,  Fort  Canada  at  the  head  of  Mobile 
Bay,  and  Fort  Toulouse  on  the  Alabama,  latitude 
32°  20'  north. 

An  English  author,  writing  in  1747,  says  of  these 
works,  that  many  of  them  are  mere  "extempore 
stockades,"  which  the  French,  "by  way  of  ostenta- 
tion,"  call  forts,  and  they  "are  a  great  nuisance  to 
our  American  colonies."  Of  their  troops,  he  observes, 
there  are  twenty-eight  marine  companies,  composed 
principally  of  "  racaille  or  gaol-birds"  from  France, 
who  can  not  be  depended  upon." 

In  1760  the  English  were  in  possession  of  Oswego, 
a  post  which  had  been  a  French  establishment. 

We  have  thus  given  a  cursory  sketch  of  the  dis- 
coveries and  occupation  of  the  French  in  the  Valley 
of  the  Mississippi  to  1763.  The  English,  like  the 
Spaniards  and  French,  have  pretensions  to  the  dis- 
covery of  the  same  region. 

EARLY  ENGLISH   DISCOVERIES. 

The  British,  whose  vessels  sailed  into  the  Missis- 
sippi in  1698  and  1699,  based  their  right  upon  the 
discovery  of  John  Cabot,  and  Sebastian  his  son,  who 
saw  and  explored  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  northern 
States,  in  1497.  The  son  spent  twenty  years  in  these 
explorations,  but  always  at  the  north,  and  is  not 
known  to  have  entered  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  In  1583, 
Secretary  Woolsingham  dispatched  vessels  of  dis- 
covery that  entered  the  river  St.  Lawrence,  and 
Douglass  insists  that  their  flag  was  seen  on  its  shores 
as  early  as  1527.  Captain  Thomas  Hutchins,  of  the 
60th  regiment  of  foot,  in  his  accourft  of  Florida  and 
Louisiana,  asserts   that  Colonel  Woods   traversed   the 


EARLY  DISCOVERIES  IN  THE  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY.      67 

mountains,  from  Virginia  in  1654,  and  reached  the 
Mississippi ;  and  also,  that  Captain  Bolt  performed 
the  same  journey  in  1670. 

Colonel  Spotswood  crossed  the  Alleghenies  in 
1710,  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  a  land  company 
in  the  colony  of  Virginia,  of  which  he  was  Governor, 
A  Virginian,  Doctor  Thomas  Walker,  passed  the 
Cumberland  Gap  in  1750,  who  was  followed  by  Eng- 
lish traders  descending  the  Ohio,  during  the  next 
year.  This  was  the  year  of  the  occupation  and  sur- 
veys of  the  London  "Ohio  Company."  In  Coxe's 
"  Collection  of  Voyages"  (A.  D.  1741),  there  is  a  map 
of  the  " Sakagoula,  "  or  aMescha"  (great)  "  Cebe" 
river  of  the  West;  and  in  "Douglass'  Summary," 
published  in  1760,  Mr.  Hushes  has  placed  a  map  of 
the  West,  embracing  not  only  the  Mississippi  and 
Missouri,  but  a  large  river  heading  near  the  latter, 
and  leading  with  a  navigable  current  to  the  Western 
Ocean.  In  1752,  Lewis  Evans  published  a  map  of 
Kentucky ;  but  none  of  those  geographers  appear  to 
have  explored  the  regions  portrayed  upon  their  plans. 
The  details  of  the  visits  of  Woods,  Bolt,  and  Walker, 
were  wanting ;  and,  consequently,  much  doubt  is 
thrown  upon  their  statements. 

But  Gist  and  Washington  kept  regular  journals  of 
their  travels,  which  are  still  preserved.  The  Iroquois, 
who  were  in  alliance  with  the  colonies  of  New  York 
and  Virginia,  effectually  prevented  the  French  from 
passing  from  Lake  Erie  to  the  head  waters  of  the 
Ohio,  until  1739,  when  Monsieur  De  Longeuil  reached 
the  Allegheny,  and  descended  the  river  in  a  pirogue. 

Gist's  survey  of  the  Ohio,  and  of  the  Great  Miami 
to  Loramies  in  1751,  and  the  establishment  of  a  post 
there  in  1752,  are  the  first  substantial  acts  of  English 
occupation  west  of  the  mountains.  The  second  was 
the  arrival  of  Ensign  Ward  and  forty-one  men  at  the 


68  FUGITIVE     ESSAYS. 

site  of  Pittsburgh,  two  years  after.  Both  Loramies 
and  Pittsburgh  were  immediately  captured  by  the 
French.  The  possession  of  the  Ohio  country  was, 
however,  finally  secured  to  the  English,  by  the  recap- 
ture of  Fort  Duquesne  in  1758,  under  General 
Forbes. 

As  to  their  rights  by  discovery  on  the  St.  Law- 
rence, although  Charles  I.  had  authorized  David 
Kerkte,  a  protestnnt  refugee  from  France,  to  invade 
Canada ;  and,  although  in  1629  he  captured  Quebec, 
the  principal  city,  it  was  restored  by  treaty  in  1632. 
Yet,  in  1711,  Queen  Anne  contended  that  the  French 
held  of  her  &a  fiefs',  and  in  1712,  a  heavy  expedi- 
tion of  sixty-eight  vessels  and  six  thousand  men  ad- 
vanced against  the  city  of  Quebec.  A  tempest 
destroyed  many  ships  and  one  thousand  men  in  the 
St.  Lawrence  river,  and  the  enterprise  was  aban- 
doned. 

Thus  the  real  basis  of  their  claims  to  the  St.  Law- 
rence, the  Lakes,  and  the  Mississippi,  is  that  of  con- 
quest in  war  from  the  French  ;  an  achievement  com- 
pleted by  Wolfe  in  his  last  victory  at  Quebec. 

We  are  thus  again  at  that  period  when  so  many 
political  changes  occurred  in  North  America,  the  year 
1763. 

THE  ENGLISH  AND  SPANISH  DOMINION. 

The  treaty  of  Paris,  February  13,  1763,  trans- 
ferred Canada  and  most  of  Louisiana  to  England. 
England,  at  the  same  time,  relinquished  Havana  to 
Spain.  Spain,  in  return,  ceded  Florida  to  England ; 
and,  in  April,  France,  by  a  secret  treaty,  yielded 
Louisiana  to  Spain. 

It  was  more  than  a  year  before  the  French  on  the 
Mississippi  were  informed  of  this  transfer;  and  five 
years  passed  before  the  arrival  of  the  Spanish  Captain- 


EARLY  DISCOVERIES  IN  THE  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY.      69 

General,  Don  Antonio  D'Ulloa.  The  colonists  were 
so  much  displeased,  that  his  successor,  O'Reilly, 
thought  it  necessary  to  have  three  thousand  troops  at 
New  Orleans,  to  hang  six  of  the  principal  citizens, 
and  shoot  five  of  the  crown  officers.  There  were, 
besides  the  Captain-General,  a  civil  officer,  called  an 
Intendant,  who  appears  to  have  been  a  kind  of  court 
of  appeals  from  the  commandants  and  vice-governors. 
A  Sub  or  Deputy  Governor  resided  at  St.  Louis.  The 
military  commandant  of  each  post  exercised,  in  the 
absence  of  the  Governor,  supreme,  civil,  and  military 
authority.  On  complaint,  he  notified  the  defendant 
that  he  must  forthwith  do  justice.  This  being  disre- 
garded, the  offender  was  ordered  to  appear,  and  sub- 
mit to  judgment.  If  he  failed  to  answer  that  sum- 
mons, a  file  of  soldiers  brought  him  into  the  presence 
of  the  Commandant,  who  administered  justice  accord- 
ing to  his  own  ideas  of  right,  and  the  laws  of  Spain. 
Writers  differ  as  to  the  equity  with  which  this  system 
operated  on  the  inhabitants.  Mr.  Breckenbridge  as- 
serts, that  the  system  was  mild,  just,  and  acceptable 
to  the  people.  Mr.  Flint  remarks,  that  the  Command- 
ant was,  in  general,  an  ignorant  and  despotic  man, 
whose  legislation  and  execution  centered  in  his  cane ; 
that  the  government  may  be  summed  up  in  a  few 
words,  viz  :  a  commandant,  a  priest,  a  file  of  soldiers, 
and  a  "  calaboosa." 

On  the  left  bank  of  the  Mississippi  and  the  Lakes, 
the  colonial  institutions  of  Great  Britain  were  in  ope- 
ration, so  far  as  inhabitants  were  found,  over  whom 
their  sway  could  be  exercised.  The  French,  at  their 
villages,  forts,  and  trading  posts,  generally  retired  to 
Canada  or  the  Spanish  towns.  A  few  still  prosecuted 
their  trade  among  the  Indian  tribes.  In  1760,  two 
hundred  persons  had  collected  about  Fort  Pitt.  On 
the  Monongahcla,  a  settlement  had  been  formed  prior 


70  FUGITIVE  ESSAYS. 

to  1758,  called  the  Decker  Settlement,  which  being 
cut  off  by  the  Indians,  restrained  the  frontier  adven- 
turers until  1765.  In  1773,  a  company  of  discharged 
soldiers  from  the  Virginia  militia  descended  the  Ohio 
to  the  Falls,  and  located  their  bounty  lands. 

A  grant  of  Indiana  had  been  made  in  1768,  to 
Samuel  Wharton,  William  Treat,  and  George  Morgan. 
But  what  constituted  Indiana  does  not  distinctly  ap- 
pear. Wheeling  had  been  established  about  sixteen 
years,  and  was  becoming  a  place  of  consequence  in 
western  affairs  in  1774. 

Colonel  George  Rogers  Clarke,  and  three  hundred 
soldiers,  the  troops  of  Virginia,  reached  Corn  Island, 
at  the  Falls  of  the  Ohio,  in  the  spring  of  1778,  which 
resulted  in  a  settlement  and  cultivation  of  land.  The 
war  of  the  Revolution  then  raging  on  the  east  of  the 
mountains  justified  Colonel  Clarke  in  making  an  as- 
sault upon  the  English  posts  at  Kaskaskia  and  Vin- 
cennes,  in  the  succeeding  fall  and  winter.  He  took 
both  these  garrisons,  and  kept  possession  of  them  till 
the  peace  of  1783. 

The  colonial  troops  had,  in  the  mean  time,  garri- 
soned Fort  Pitt,  Fort  M'Intosh,  Fort  Laurens,  and 
the  Fort  at  Point  Pleasant;  expeditions  had  been 
made  against  the  Indians  in  alliance  with  Great 
Britain ;  and  a  virtual  conquest  of  the  country,  bor- 
dering the  Ohio  on  the  north,  had  been  made  in  the 
name  of  the  Colonies  or  of  the  Confederation  of  tho 
States.  This  was  acknowledged  and  confirmed  by  tho 
treaty  with  England,  January  10,  1783,  twenty  years 
after  she  had  acquired  the  country  ceded  from  France. 
From  that  moment,  one-half  of  the  Valley  of  the 
Mi-sissippi,  shaking  oft'  the  monarchial  principal,  be- 
came republican  soil.  The  right  bank  of  that  stream 
retained  its  feudal  and  absolute  character  twenty 
years  longer.     In  1789,  the  Spanish  minister,  Count 


EARLY  DISCOVERIES  IN  THE  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY.     71 

D'Aranda,  proposed  to  make  three  kingdoms  in 
America,  one  for  each  of  the  infants.  By  this  scheme, 
her  territories  were  to  cease  to  be  colonies ;  but  mon- 
archy, in  its  odious  form,  was  to  be  made  hereditary 
on  the  banks  of  the  Mississippi. 

Another  of  the  Spanish  projects  in  America  had 
been  made  known  the  year  before ;  and  it  was  a 
proposition  to  the  Americans,  west  of  the  mountains, 
to  form  a  separate  empire,  in  consideration  of  the  free 
navigation  of  the  Mississippi.  These  designs  all  failed 
of  execution.  At  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
Bonaparte  began  to  form  projects  relative  to  America, 
and  persuaded  Spain  to  cede  Louisiana  to  France. 
The  Spanish  forces  had  made  a  conquest  of  Florida, 
from  England,  during  the  American  war,  and  now 
held  an  immense  territory  in  North  America.  On  the 
first  of  October,  A.  D.  1800,  a  treaty  or  convention 
was  signed  by  France  and  Spain  at  St.  Ildefonso,  by 
which  Louisiana  passed  into  the  hands  of  Napoleon. 
It  was  confirmed  and  reiterated  in  the  treaty  of  Ma- 
drid, March  21,  1801 ;  but  it  was  stipulated,  that  in 
case  of  a  disposal  of  the  territory  by  France,  Spain 
should  have  the  refusal  of  it.  France  thus  became 
possessed  a  second  time  of  the  fruits  of  her  early  dis- 
coveries on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

THE  SECOND  DOMINION  OF  FRANCE. 

New  circumstances  arising,  gave  rise  to  changes 
in  the  policy  of  the  Consul  in  regard  to  Louisiana. 
The  assumption  of  civil  authority  was  delayed. 
Laussat  and  perfect  and  Aymi  the  chief  judge,  at 
last  arrived  at  New  Orleans,  in  the  winter  of  1803  ; 
but  the  Captain-General  Victor  was  prevented  from 
leaving  the  Dutch  coast  with  his  armament,  by  the  war 
with  England  breaking  out  afresh  after  the  peace  of 
Amiens. 


72  FUGITIVE  ESSAYS. 

Bonaparte  to  prevent  the  English  from  making  I 
conquest  of  the  territory,  and  to  procure  money  for 
his  vast  civil  undertakings,  determined  at  once  to  sell 
this  province  to  the  United  States.  Without  knowing 
of  his  determination,  Mr.  Jefferson,  President  of  the 
United  States,  dispatched  a  special  envoy  (Mr.  Mon- 
roe), to  negociate  for  the  Island  of  Orleans.  The 
population  of  the  American  side  of  the  valley  had 
expanded  to  the  number  of  eight  hundred  thousand, 
and  the  free  use  of  the  river  became  indispensable. 

On  the  27th  of  October,  1795,  the  Spanish  gov- 
ernment had  granted  a  right  of  depot  for  three  years  ; 
and  by  mutual  consent  it  had  continued  without  repeal 
until  the  16th  of  October,  1802,  when  the  Intcndant 
Morales  suddenly  brought  it  to  a  termination.  There 
was  a  party  in  the  country,  particularly  at  the  West, 
who  were  for  taking  military  possession  at  once.  Mr. 
Jefferson  had  no  farther  design  than  to  secure  the 
remaining  portion  of  the  left  bank,  and  instructed 
Mr.  Monroe  to  offer  $2,000,000.  A  motion  was 
made  in  the  Senate,  that  $5,000,000  and  50,000 
troops  be  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  President, 
to  take  possession  of  New  Orleans;  but  it  <li<l 
not  carry,  and  Mr.  Jefferson  relied  upon  pacific 
measures. 

Mr.  Monroe,  on  reaching  France,  was  astonished 
to  learn  that  the  French  ruler  had  already  decided  to 
sell,  not  only  a  part,  but  all  of  Louisiana  ;  and  the 
only  question  to  be  discussed  was  the  price  to  be 
paid  for  it.  On  the  10th  of  March,  the  Spanisli  au- 
thorities, being  still  in  the  exercise  of  their  functions, 
consented  to  give  us  a  place  of  deposit  in  New  Orleans 
for  western  produce.  But,  unknown  to  all  on  this  side 
of  the  water,  and  to  Spain  and  England  on  the  other, 
the  treaty  of  cession  was  maturing,  and,  on  the  30th 
of   April,  was  settled  by  the  commissioners.      The 


EARLY  DISCOVERIES  IN  THE  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY,      i  6 

United  States  gave  80,000,000  of  francs,  from 
which  20,000,000  were  deducted  for  spoliations  upon 
our  commerce. 

As  soon  as  the  papers  were  signed,  the  three  ne- 
gociators,  Barbe  Marbois,  Mr.  Livingston,  and  Mr. 
Monroe,  transported  with  sentiments  of  joy,  that  so 
great  a  matter  had  been  disposed  of  to  the  mutual 
honor  and  satisfaction  of  all,  rose  and  grasped  each 
other's  hands  with  the  utmost  enthusiasm.  Mr.  Liv- 
ingston exclaimed,  "We  have  lived  long,  but  this  is 
the  noblest  work  of  our  lives.  The  treaty  which  we 
have  just  signed  has  not  been  obtained  by  art,  nor 
dictated  by  force.  Equally  advantageous  to  the  two 
contracting  parties,  it  will  change  vast  solitudes  into 
nourishing  districts.  The  United  States  will  re-estab- 
lish the  maritime  rights  of  all  the  world,  now  usurped 
by  a  single  nation.  The  instruments  we  have  just 
signed  will  cause  no  tears  to  be  shed ;  they  prepare 
ages  of  happiness  for  innumerable  generations  of  hu- 
man creatures." 

The  article  guaranteeing  protection  to  property 
and  the  enjoyment  of  liberty,  with  the  free  exercise 
of  religion,  was  drawn  up  by  the  hand  of  Napoleon. 

"Let  the  Louisianians,"  said  he,  "know,  that  we 
separate  ourselves  from  them  with  regret;  that  we 
stipulate  in  their  favor  every  thing  which  they  can 
desire ;  and  let  them  hereafter,  happy  in  their  inde- 
pendence, recollect  that  they  have  been  Frenchmen, 
and  that  France,  in  ceding  them,  has  secured  for 
them  advantages  which  they  could  not  obtain  from  an 
European  power,  however  paternal  it  might  have 
been.  Let  them  retain  for  us  sentiments  of  affection  ; 
and  may  their  common  origin,  descent,  language,  and 
customs,  perpetuate  the  friendship." 

The  Spaniards  were  now  required  to  execute  the 
treaty  of  St.  Ildefonso.      They  accordingly  delivered 


74  ItroiTIVE    ESSAY?, 

the  forts  and  posts  on  the  Mississippi,  to  Monsieur 
Laussat  and  his  agents,  on  the  30th  of  November, 
1803.  The  reign  of  France  was  short  and  provis- 
ional. On  the  2t)th  of  December,  the  French  pre- 
fect, the  American  governor,  Claiborne,  and  General 
Wilkinson,  commanding  the  United  States'  troops,  who 
had  entered  the  city  as  the  Spaniards  embarked,  as- 
sembled at  the  City  Hall.  Laussat  made  a  formal 
transfer  of  the  province,  and  Claiborne  received  it  in 
execution  of  the  treaty. 

While  this  ceremony  was  passing  in  the  Hall,  the 
American  flag  was  brought  to  the  foot  of  the  flag-staff, 
at  the  top  of  which  floated  the  colors  of  France.  As 
one  rose,  the  other  descended,  and  meeting  midway, 
remained  some  moments  mutually  entwined.  When 
the  flag  of  the  Union  rose  in  the  air,  the  Americans 
could  no  longer  suppress  their  shouts  of  joy ;  but  the 
French  guard,  alive  to  the  scene,  expressed  the  deep- 
est regrets,  and  as  a  last  homage  to  the  illustrious 
banner  of  their  country,  the  leader  wrapped  it  around 
his  body,  and  paraded  the  streets  at  the  head  of  his 
troops,  and  finally  deposited  this  symbol  of  the  power 
and  glory  of  France  with  the  late  prefect,  Mr. 
Laussat. 

THE  DOMINION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

A  few  wonU  will  express  what  we  have  to  say  of 
the  power  now  in  the  possession  of  the  Mississippi. 

Congress  divided  the  territory  of  Louisiana  <>n  the 
20th  of  May,  1804,  and  the  northern   territory  W&B 
attached  to  Indiana.      On  the  22d  of  January.  1812, 
the    State  of    Louisiana    was    formed    by   n <  1  * ; j > t 
republican  constitution. 

In    J8Q">,  Oovcrnor  Harrison    of   Indiana,  dr 
Upper  Louisiana  irijto  six  districts  or  counties.     Tips'.' 


RIGHTS  OF  AUTHORS  OUTSIDE  OF  COPYRIGHTS.         75 

districts  had,  in  1810,  the  following  population,  of 
whom  8,011  were  slaves: 

St.  Charles,         ....  3,505 

St.  Louis,        ....  5,667 

St.  Genevieve,     ....  4,620 

Cape  Girardeau,      .         .         .  3,888 

New  Madrid,       ....  3,313 

Arkansas,       ....  1,067 


Total,  21,845 

Both  banks  of  the  river,  under  the  impulse  of  our 
people,  who  derive  their  enterprise  from  the  happy 
and  free  nature  of  their  government,  are  now  occu- 
pied by  constitutional  States,  as  far  north  as  the  lati- 
tude of  the  lakes. 

Population  has  spread  itself  to  its  source,  and  com- 
merce enlivens  its  entire  length.  In  1712,  there  were 
supposed  to  be  but  twenty-eight  families  resident  on 
the  Mississippi  and  its  waters.  Now,  there  are 
6,000,000  of  souls. 


RIGHTS  OF  AUTHORS   OUTSIDE  OF  COPY- 
RIGHTS. 

[Hesperian,  September,  1839.] 


We  know  of  no  proceedings  in  State  Courts,  rela- 
tive to  the  rights  of  authors  and  inventors,  since  the 
Constitution  went  into  operation  in  1789.     It  appears 


76  ruGlrivE  essays. 

to  have  been  generally  believed,  that  a  provision  of 
the  8th  section  of  the  1st  article  of  that  paper,  with- 
drew from  the  respective  States  all  control  over  the 
subject ;  that  the  grant  to  Congress  of  a  power  "  to 
promote  the  progress  of  science  and  the  useful  arts, 
by  securing  for  limited  times  to  authors  and  inventors 
the  exclusive  right  to  their  respective  writings  and 
discoveries,"  vested  in  that  body  exclusive  authority 
in  those  matters ;  and,  through  it,  in  the  federal 
courts,  exclusive  jurisdiction  of  cases  relating  to  those 
rights. 

Chief  Justice  Kent  advanced  a  contrary  doctrine, 
in  Livingston  vs.  Van  Ingen,  9th  Johnson 's  Reports  ; 
but  we  know  of  no  legislative  action  corresponding 
with  the  suggestion  put  forward  in  that  case.  He 
said,  "that  if  an  author  or  inventor,  instead  of  resort- 
ing to  the  Act  of  Congress,  should  apply  to  the  State 
Legislature  for  an  exclusive  right  to  his  production, 
there  is  nothing  to  prevent  the  State  from  granting 
such  exclusive  privilege,  provided  it  be  confined  in  its 
exercise  to  their  particular  jurisdiction."  We  pro- 
pose, however,  to  view  the  subject  of  literary  proj»  rty 
in  the  United  States,  in  a  different  aspect,  as  coming 
under  the  judicial,  and  not  the  legislative  power.  If 
an  author,  or  inventor,  in  Ohio,  or  other  State,  enters 
the  proper  court  with  a  complaint  that  his  book,  or 
invention,  has  been  pirated  by  a  person  within  its 
jurisdiction,  can  such  State  Court  refuse  cognizance 
of  the  injury  ?  Our  Constitution  asserts,  that  courts 
of  justice  shall  always  be  open  for  redress  of  injuries 
to  the  person,  or  property,  or  reputation  of  any  indi- 
vidual ;  and  to  disclaim  consideration  of  the  case  we 
have  just  put,  a  clear  exception  must  be  furnished  by 
the  court,  showing  a  want  of  jurisdiction  over  the  sub- 
ject matter.  The  excuse  should  designate  another 
tribunal  or  authority,  having  the  power  and  the  dispo- 


RIGHTS  OF  AUTHORS  OUTSIDE  OF  COPYRIGHTS.         77 

sition  to  entertain  the  case  or  the  existence  of  a  pro- 
hibition by  a  law  superior  to  the  State  Constitution. 

There  is  still  another  ground  of  refusal,  which  is,  a 
denial  that  the  work  of  our  author  is  property.  If  such 
productions  are  property,  and  no  restrictions  are 
placed  upon  the  States  in  guarding  and  protecting  it, 
by  the  language  we  have  quoted  from  the  eighth  section 
of  the  first  article  of  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States,  authors  and  inventors  can  no  more  be  driven 
from  the  seat  of  justice  unheard,  than  the  creditor,  or 
the  slandered  man.  A  review  of  the  subject  and  the 
discussion  will  almost  necessarily  mingle  the  consid- 
eration of  a  right  of  property  with  that  of  jurisdic- 
tion. 

The  first  English  statute  upon  the  subject  is  the 
9th  of  Anne,  c.  19,  enacted  in  the  year  1709.  It 
provided,  that  within  a  certain  period  (fourteen  years) 
the  author  "shall  have  the  sole  right  and  liberty  of 
printing,  vending,  etc.,"  his  work.  The  penalties  of 
the  act  were,  that  every  copy  should  be  forfeited,  to 
be  destroyed,  and  a  penny  a  sheet  paid  to  the  informer 
who  should  prosecute.  The  existence  of  a  common 
law  right,  and  the  effect  of  this  statute  upon  it,  may 
be  gathered  from  the  English  cases. 

The  King's  Bench  in  1770,  decided,  "that  any 
author  had  a  common  law  right  in  perpetuity,  to  the 
exclusive  printing  and  publishing  his  original  compo- 
sitions." 2  Kent's  Com.,  307 ;  4  Burr  owes  Hep., 
2203 ;  Taylor  vs.  Miller.  Injunctions  to  prevent  the 
publication  of  manuscripts  without  copyrights  were 
frequently  granted  upon  the  ground  that  there  was  a 
property  independent  of  the  statute.  Eden  on  In- 
junctions, 199,  200;  2  Eden,  329;  2  Merivale, 
435 ;  2  Atlc.,  342 ;  2  Ves.  $  Bea.,  19. 

In  1774,  the  House  of  Lords  reversed  the  decision 
iU  Taylor  vs.  Miller,  by  deciding  that  the  common 
7  * 


78  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

law  right^  if  any  existed,  could  not  be  exercised  beyond 
the  time  limited  by  the  statute  of  Anne.  Donaldson 
ys.  Becket;  7  Bro.  P.  O.  88,  and  Burrowes,  2408. 
This  case  turned  upon  the  question,  whether  the  sta- 
tute abridged  or  took  away  the  common  law  right. 
And  to  allow  this  case  only  the  force  to  which  it  is 
entitled,  the  circumstances  attending  these  leading 
decisions  will  be  given.  In  Miller  vs.  Taylor,  all  the 
judges,  except  Justice  Yates,  subscribed  to  the  exist- 
ence of  a  common  law  right  expressed  in  the  decision 
above  quoted,  and  Lord  Mansfield  was  one  of  the 
court.  Four  years  afterwards,  in  Donaldson  vs. 
Becket,  the  Lords  referred  the  question,  how  far  the 
statute  affected  the  common  law  right,  if  it  existed, 
to  the  twelve  Judges  of  England.  Lord  Mansfield 
declined  giving  an  opinio'n,  but  adhered,  in  sentiment, 
to  the  case  of  Miller  vs.  Taylor.  Eight  of  the  re- 
maining eleven  agreed,  that  a  common  law  right 
existed  before  the  statute.  Six  were  of  opinion  that 
the  statute  abridged  or  took  away  that  right;  and 
five  that  it  did  not,  who,  with  Mansfield,  would  have 
divided  the  Bench.  Upon  this  authority  rests  the 
right  of  "property,"  under  the  statute  of  Anne,  from 
which,  as  will  be  shown  hereafter,  the  act  of  Con- 
gress of  1790  was  almost  copied. 

But,  twenty-four  years  after,  in  Beckford  vs.  Hood, 
the  King's  Bench  declared  (all  the  judges  concurring) 
that  the  statute  confirmed,  for  the  time  named  in  it, 
the  common  law  right,  and  that  the  penalties,  instead 
of  barring  the  common  law  remedy,  constituted  an 
accumulative  right  of  action.     7  Term.  Rep.,  623. 

At  this  period,  1798,  our  statute  had  been  in  ex- 
istence eight  years,  and  may  be  said,  therefore,  to  be 
interpreted  by  the  King's  Bench,  so  far  as  it  agrees 
with  the  English  statute  of  that  day.  It  is  now  pro- 
posed to  give  the  American  statutes  in  substance,  and 


RIGHTS  OF  AUTHORS  OUTSIDE  OF  COPYRIGHTS.         79 

we  will  confine  ourselves  to  those  parts  bearing  upon 
this  discussion. 

The  words  corresponding,  in  the  first  section  of 
the  law  of  Congress,  of  April  31,  1790,  with  those 
of  Anne,  are  these :  "  Shall  have  the  sole  right  of 
printing,  re-printing,  publishing  and  vending,"  books, 
maps  and  charts,  for  fourteen  years,  and  at  the  ex- 
piration, if  the  author  is  living,  renewable  for  four- 
teen years,  in  addition. 

Section  second  gives  a  penalty  of  fifty  cents  a 
sheet,  one-half  to  the  lawful  author  who  prosecutes, 
and  one-half  to  the  Government.  It  also  forfeits  all 
the  copies,  for  the  purpose  of  destruction. 

Section  sixth  relates  to  piracy  of  a  manuscript, 
and  says,  the  author  may  sue  for  damages,  in  any 
court  having  jurisdiction,  in  an  "  action  on  the  case." 
The  act  specifies  no  particular  jurisdiction,  and  there- 
fore relates  to  the  Federal  Courts  generally ;  and 
were  it  not  for  the  division  of  powers  between  the 
States  and  the  National  Government,  by  our  Consti- 
tution, there  would  be  very  little  difficulty  in  adopt- 
ing, almost  entire,  the  English  practice,  under  the 
statute  of  Anne.  What,  then,  was  the  effect  of  the 
Constitution,  as  adopted  in  1789,  and  the  laws  enacted 
in  pursuance  to  it,  April,  1790,  upon  the  rights  of 
authors  ? 

Prior  to  the  revolution,  British  North  America 
was  doubtless  governed  on  this  point  by  the  English 
law.  Between  the  Declaration  of  Independence  in 
1776,  and  the  Constitution,  the  States,  though  freed 
from  the  political  rule  of  the  mother  country,  in  gen- 
eral, adopted  her  methods  of  administering  justice 
and  expounding  and  enforcing  private  rights.  We 
may  safely  conclude,  that  this  subject  stood,  at  the 
adoption  of  the  Constitution,  upon  the  same  basis  as 
it  did  in  England.     The  words  of  that  instrument  are 


80  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

intended  to  secure,  and  not  to  create,  a  right  of  prop- 
erty. The  cases  of  Taylor  vs.  Miller,  and  Donaldson 
vs.  Beckct,  were  before  the  Convention  of  1787.  una 
all  the  law  and  the  arguments  connected  with  those 
prominent  decisions  were  familiar  to  the  delegation. 
By  thorn  a  common  law  right  existed  in  the  author 
before  the  statute,  and  the  judicial  exponent  of  law  in 
England  was  equally  divided  upon  the  question  whether 
it  existed  under  or  during  the  statute.  Every  decision 
recognized  the  right  to  a  common  law  remedy  under 
the  statute;  and  the  necessity  of  pursuing  it  in  that 
way  was  apparent,  from  an  absence  of  statutory  pro- 
vision respecting  the  form  of  action.  The  act  of  Anno, 
then,  according  to  Beckwith  vs.  Hood,  secured  more 
fully  to  authors  this  property  in  books,  by  ordaining 
forfeitures  and  penalties,  in  addition  to  the  usual  rem- 
edy for  injuries  to  their  interests. 

The  acts  of  Parliament  are,  in  such  matters,  in 
England,  like  our  American  Constitution  here,  the 
supremo  law  of  the  land.  The  phraseology  of  our 
law,  made  in  pursuance  to  the  Constitution,  is  almost 
identical  with  the  enactment  of  Parliament.  Is  there 
anything  in  circumstances  to  give  the  same  terms 
creator  scope  on  this  side  the  Water  than  they  had  on 
the  other?  If  not,  where  is  the  remaining  right,  as 
yet  untouched  by  the  Constitution  or  the  law? 

The  Federal  Government  took  nothing,  in  any  of 
its  branches,  but  what  the  people  bestowed  in  the 
Constitution.  They  gave  Congress  the  power,  the 
ability,  to  promote  the  useful  arts  and  general  science. 
This  is  the  prerogative  yielded  up  to  the  Union,  and 
it  was  either  concurrent  or  exclusive.  The  exercise 
of  it  by  Congre--  was  not  compulsory,  but  voluntary, 
which  seems  to  give  it  the  character  of  a  concurrent 
power,  that  the  S.ate  Legislatures  might  exercise  in  the 
absence  of,  or  in  subordination  to,  the  General  Congress. 


RIGHTS  OF  AUTHORS  OUTSIDE  OF   COPYRIGHTS.         81 

The  manner  and  also  the  extent  or  mode  of  the  encou- 
ragement to  be  given,  was  pointed  out  in  the  same  con- 
nection in  the  eighth  section,  viz :  by  securing  to  authors, 
etc.,  exclusive  rights.  Could  Congress,  under  such  a 
wording,  say  to  the  people  of  the  States,  that,  not  com- 
plying with  the  terms  of  our  law,  you  shall  have  no  right 
or  interest  in  your  literary  productions  ?  The  National 
Legislature  is  empowered  to  secure,  not  to  abrogate  a 
known,  existing,  and  well-defined  right.  This  would 
prove  a  great  contradiction  to  the  avowed  objects  of 
the  Constitution,  and  would  obtain  its  introduction  in 
a  very  insiduous  manner.  The  case  would  form  an 
exception  to  the  professed  intention  of  that  document, 
which  is  the  protection,  not  the  destruction  of  property. 
Apply  the  doctrine  to  a  literary  work  in  being  at  the 
adoption  of  the  new  form  of  Government  in  1789. 
The  author  considers  the  common  law  right,  or  the 
State  authority,  a  sufficient  protection  for  his  book, 
and  does  not  think  it  necessary  to  assume  the  trouble 
and  expense  of  a  copyright.  At  the  moment  when 
the  new  Government  came  into  existence,  according 
to  a  construction  of  this  kind,  his  rights  all  fail,  and 
the  product  of  his  pen  is  at  the  mercy  of  any  invader. 
And  in  searching  for  the  clause  which  has  produced 
such  an  unexpected  change  in  his  property,  it  is  dis- 
covered to  be  a  phrase  for  the  promotion  of  learning 
and  art,  by  farther  securing  for  limited  times,  to  the 
author,  the  sole  use  of  his  book.  Assuming  then,  that 
Congress  can  create  no  right  of  property,  but  only 
more  effectually  protect,  for  a  time,  what  is  in  nature 
and  by  common  law  already  in  existence,  the  inquiry 
occurs,  where  is  the  remnant  of  authority  and  jurisdic- 
tion not  delegated  to  the  federal  power?  Can  it  be 
any  where  but  in  the  people  of  the  States?  or,  if 
by  them  delegated  to  the  Local  Governments,  then 
in  some  branch  of  the  State  authority? 


OZ  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

But  to  bring  forward  the  proceedings  of  Congress 
to  a  late  period,  the  acts  subsequent  to  1790  should 
be  here  introduced.  Upon  the  8th  of  Anne,  similar 
to  the  first  American  law,  Lord  Kenyon  had  remarked, 
in  Beekwith  vs.  Hood,  "Nothing  can  be  more  incom- 
plete as  a  remedy,  than  these  penalties;  for,  without 
dwelling  upon  the  incompetency  of  the  sum,  the  right 
of  action  is  not  given  to  the  party  grieved."  Our 
statute  differed  from  this,  in  giving  one-half  the  pen- 
alty to  the  party  grieved,  if  prosecuted  within  one 
year.  The  expense  and  trouble  of  prosecution  would 
consume  most  of  the  author's  share  of  the  judgment ; 
and  conceding  this  to  be  the  only  remedy  in  the 
United  States,  the  progress  of  a  year  in  time,  without 
suit,  leaves  him  without  relief.  April  28,  1802,  another 
act  was  passed,  relative  to  historical  and  other  prints, 
with  forfeitures  and  penalties,  like  the  law  of  1790, 
but  in  no  manner  altering  or  affecting  that  act.  The 
limitation  in  this  act  is  two  years.  The  next  Legisla- 
tion was  perfected  February  3,  1831,  forty-one  years 
after  the  original  action  of  Congress,  a  period  in  which 
the  property  in  books,  maps,  and  charts,  in  the  United 
States,  was  apparently  subject  to  similar  common  law 
incidents,  with  the  same  things  in  England.  The  first 
section  extends  the  subjects  of  copyright,  including 
with  books,  maps,  and  charts,  musical  compositions, 
prints,  cuts,  and  engravings. 

Section  six  creates  the  penalties  for  printing, 
publishing,  vending,  importing,  or  offering  for  sale, 
any  of  the  articles  enumerated  in  the  first  section, 
without  the  consent  of  the  author.  The  books  are 
here  forfeited  to  the  lawful  owner,  and  a  fine  of  fifty 
cents  a  sheet  is  recoverable,  one-half  to  the  author  or 
owner  who  prosecutes.  The  maps,  charts,  etc.,  are 
forfeited  to  the  same  use,  and  also  the  plates,  with  a 
fine  of  one  dollar  per  sheet  or  copy,  one-half  to  the 


RIGHTS  OF  AUTHORS  OUTSIDE  OP  COPYRIGHTS.         83 

owner.  Limitations  to  prosecutions,  two  years.  The 
changes  or  amendments  here  adopted  are  in  favor  of 
the  author,  by  bestowing  the  surreptitious  copies  upon 
him  in  full,  instead  of  ordering  their  destruction. 

Section  nine  has  the  following  provision:  "If  any 
unauthorized  person  shall  publish  or  print  i  any  manu- 
script whatever/  he  shall  pay  all  damages,  in  an  action 
on  the  case,  in  any  court  having  jurisdiction ;  and  the 
United  States  Courts  are  empowered  to  grant  injunc- 
tions against  the  issue  of  such  publication." 

We  do  not  know  the  judicial  construction  to  this 
section.  The  other  parts  of  the  act  quoted  do  not 
differ  in  principle  from  the  acts  of  1790  and  1802, 
which  are  nearly  equivalent  to  the  8th  Anne,  chapter 
19.  The  language  of  the  section  seems  to  intend  to 
bestoiv  a  general  jurisdiction  by  an  action  for  damages, 
and  a  particular  authority  in  cases  of  injunction  arising 
out  of  a  wrongful  publication  or  printing  of  a  manu- 
script;  and  the  inference  is,  that  Congress  conceived 
themselves  authorized  to  allow  a  suit  for  damages,  in 
the  cases  of  books,  maps,  and  charts,  but  did  not 
choose  to  do  so. 

On  the  15th  of  February,  1819,  a  law  of  Congress 
was  passed,  giving  to  the  Circuit  Courts  of  the  United 
States  original  cognizance  of  suits  at  law  and  in 
equity,  arising  under  the  laws  of  the  United  States, 
respecting  writings,  inventions,  etc.  This  act  is  a 
mere  disposal  of  jurisdiction  among  the  federal  courts, 
creating  no  fresh  rights  of  action.  At  the  same  time 
it  had  been  decided,  in  Robinson  vs.  Campbell,  3 
Wheaton,  221,  "  that,  by  the  laws  of  the  United  States, 
the  Circuit  Courts  have  cognizance  of  all  suits  of  a 
civil  nature,  at  common  law  and  in  equity,  in  cases 
which  fall  ivithin  the  limits  prescribed  by  those  laws." 
And  remedies  in  the  federal  courts  were  declared  to  be 
4-  according  to  the  principles  of  common  law  and  equity, 


84  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS.  ^ 

as  distinguished  and  defined  in  that  country,  from 
which  we  derive  our  knowledge  of  those  principles." 

And  afterwards,  Chancellor  Kent,  2d  vol.  Com.  p. 
380,  adopts  the  language  of  "Du  Ponceau  on  Juris- 
diction," reading  as  follows:  "The  courts  (federal) 
can  not  derive  their  right  to  act  from  the  common  law. 
They  mu3t  look  for  that  right  to  the  Constitution  and 
laws  of  the  United  States.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
common  law,  considered  merely  as  a  means  or  instru- 
ment of  exercising  jurisdiction,  does  exist,  and  forms 
a  safe  and  beneficial  system  of  national  jurispru- 
dence." Should  we,  therefore,  adopt  the  construction 
given  to  the  8th  of  Anne,  by  the  House  of  Lords,  and 
also  in  Beckwith  vs.  Hood,  K.  B.,  that  the  acts  of 
1790,  1802,  and  1831,  give  a  statutory  right,  can  the 
federal  courts,  like  the  English  tribunals,  take  juris- 
diction without  express  enactment  by  Congress  ?  In 
England,  the  author  or  inventor  has  his  action  on  the 
case  for  damages ;  here,  the  statute  in  terms  grants 
no  such  right  of  action,  except  in  the  case  of  manu- 
scripts; and  if  the  right  is  inferred,  can  the  Circuit 
Court  take  cognizance  under  the  act  of  1819  ?  We  do 
not  feel  bound  to  admit  the  statute  as  the  origin  of  an 
author's  right  to  a  property  in  his  production;  but  if 
it  should  prove  otherwise,  and  the  federal  court  should 
maintain  a  claim  to  jurisdiction,  in  an  action  on  the 
case  for  damages,  are  citizens  bound  to  proceed  in  that 
court  exclusively  of  others? 

Concerning  the  exclusive  exercise  of  legislative 
power  in  the  Federal  Government,  the  extent  of  such 
authority  is  well  defined  by  the  Supreme  Judicial 
Bench  of  the  Union,  in  Sturges  vs.  Crowningshield, 
4  Wheaton,  193.  "  The  mere  grant  of  a  power  by 
Congress  does  not  imply  a  prohibition  on  the  States 
to  exercise  the  same  power."  And,  in  Houston  ?>#. 
Moore,  5  Wheaton,  1,   "The  mere  grant  of  a  power. 


RIGHTS  OP  AUTHORS  OUTSIDE  OP  COPYRIGHTS.         85 

in  affirmative  terms  to  Congress,  does  not  per  se 
transfer  exclusive  sovereignty  on  such  subjects."  "  The 
doctrine  of  the  court  is,  that  when  Congress  exercise 
their  powers  upon  any  given  subject,  the  States  can 
not  enter  upon  the  same  ground  and  provide  for  the 
same  objects."  And  the  well-known  general  rule  is 
this :  where  a  grant  is  made  to  Congress,  and  in  ex- 
press terms  prohibited  to  the  States,  or  a  power  is 
bestowed  upon  the  General  Government  exclusive  by 
the  letter  of  the  Constitution,  or  a  grant  is  proved,  in 
which,  from  its  nature,  the  exercise  of  the  same  au- 
thority in  the  States  would  be  incompatible  with  the 
use  of  it  by  Congress,  and  Congress  have  exercised  it 
in  all  these  cases,  the  States  have  no  remaining  power. 

Admitting  that  Congress  might  have  invested  the 
United  States  Courts  with  jurisdiction  of  cases  for 
damages  claimed  by  authors,  has  it  been  granted? 
Perhaps  it  was  discretionary  writh  the  National  Legis- 
lature to  give  such  further  security,  and  in  their  own 
courts;  but  they  do  not  seem  to  have  done  it;  and  if 
they  had,  could  exclusive  cognizance  thereof  have  been 
claimed  by  them  ? 

The  question,  whether  the  States  may  or  may  not 
promote  science  and  the  useful  arts,  by  still  further 
securing  to  authors  and  inventors  exclusive  rights,  is 
yet  unsettled.  It  is  clearly  asserted,  by  Chancellor 
Kent,  that  they  may  to  a  certain  extent.  But  the 
claim  of  a  power  to  legislate  by  the  States,  and  thus 
to  provide  encouragement,  which  Congress  can  not  or 
will  not  afford,  is  quite  different  from  the  retention  of 
an  original  right  in  a  State  to  protect  the  existence 
and  preserve  the  use  of  the  property  of  its  citizens. 
The  latter,  if  yielded,  was  a  sale  of  natural  right  for 
the  purchase  of  political  security;  and  the  strongest 
and  clearest  evidence  of  the  exchange  is  to  be  de- 
manded. 

8 


86  FUGITIVE  ESSAYS. 

It  must  have  been  parted  with,  if  at  all,  on  an  under- 
standing that  the  General  Government,  empowered  by 
the  grant  to  secure,  would  faithfully  attend  to  its 
duty  and  guard  the  rights  of  the  author,  as  the  States 
had  heretofore  done.  The  former  grant  involves  nothing 
but  policy.  The  people  of  the  States  truly  imagined 
that  an  uniform  rule,  embracing  at  once  all  the  territory 
of  the- United  States,  would  be  preferable  to  the  nu- 
merous and  varied  laws  of  the  local  Legislatures. 
They,  therefore,  gave  Congress  the  power  to  secure, 
for  limited  times,  the  rights  of  authors,  etc.,  in  such 
manner,  and  by  such  penalties,  as  they  should  think 
wise  and  proper.  Let  us  conceive  of  a  period  when 
special  protection  to  this  species  of  property  shall  be 
unnecessary.  Since  the  year  1789,  half  a  century 
has  passed  away.  The  art  of  book-making  has  be- 
come a  business,  like  the  manufacture  of  merchandise* 
In  the  times  of  Queen  Anne,  learning  had  just  escaped 
from  the  walls  of  the  monasteries,  and  a  calling  so 
elevated  did  not  promise  to  become  common  among 
men.  A  particular  encouragement  was  given  to  the 
production  of  books,  as  had  often  been  the  case  with 
other  commodities ;  and  the  public,  after  the  author 
was  well  compensated,  had  the  work  at  cost,  by  a  re- 
version or  resumption  of  the  special  protection.  Times 
had  not  so  far  changed  when  the  Government  of  the 
United  States  first  considered  the  subject,  eighty  years 
afterwards,  as  to  render  encouragement  useless.  But 
we.  at  the  close  of  the  succeeding  fifty  years,  are  ae 
customed  to  think  the  human  genius  equal  to  the 
accomplishment  of  such  things,  unaided  by  law.  And 
it  may  be  asked,  even  now,  whether  the  author  desires 
more  than  the  ordinary  protection  of  his  property? 

In  such  a  state  of  things,  would  it  be  necessary 
for  Congress  to  repeal  its  laws,  in  order  to  place 
writings  and  inventions  within  ike  guardianship  of  the 


RIGHTS  OF  AUTHORS  OUTSIDE  OF  COPYRIGHTS.  87 

State  law?  If  it  would  not,  may  not  the  author  now 
rely  at  discretion  upon  the  ordinary  remedies  of  local 
courts,  neglect  to  procure  his  copyright,  and  bring  an 
action  for  damages  when  his  work  or  invention  is  pub- 
lished by  another  without  consent?  We  have  seen 
that  it  is  at  least  doubtful  whether  he  can  prosecute 
for  such  an  injury  in  a  civil  form,  except  for  the  pen- 
alty while  holding  a  copyright.  In  most  cases,  an  or- 
dinary remedy  would  be  preferable  to  one-half  the 
penalty.  If  it  can  be  pursued  in  the  local  courts,  it 
would  be  decidedly  more  advantageous.  The  uncer- 
tainties and  technicalities  of  patents  would  be  avoided 
in  the  case  of  inventions.  A  course  of  State  legisla- 
tion would  be  unnecessary,  for  the  State  Courts  have 
already  jurisdiction,  if  the  Federal  Courts  have  not. 
The  odious  exclusion  of  foreigners  from  the  protection 
of  law,  as  recently  enforced  according  to  the  letter 
of  the  statute,  in  the  case  of  the  "Phantom  Ship," 
Marryatt  vs.  Collyer,  would  be  done  away,  and  the 
necessity  of  an  international  copyright  law  avoided. 

If,  then,  we  have  fully  examined  the  premises,  the 
following  points  are  unsettled,  and  worthy  of  atten- 
tion by  those  concerned  : 

1.  Whether  the  Constitution  vested  in  Congress 
an  exclusive  power  of  legislation  over  writings  and 
inventions. 

2.  Whether  there  existed  a  common  law  right  prior 
to  the  Constitution,  capable  of  enforcement  in  the 
State  Courts,  without  legislation. 

3.  Whether  the  laws  of  Congress  are,  at  present, 
the  sole  basis  of  right,  in  property  of  that  kind. 

4.  Whether  the  lawful  jurisdiction  of  the  Federal 
Courts  is  co-extensive  with  the  existing  rights  of  au- 
thors. 

5.  Whether  it  is  exclusive. 

Here  is  a  broad  and  untrodden  field  of  inquiry  and 


00  FUGITIVE    E8SAYS. 

litigation,  which  the  rapid  advance  of  literature  may 
soon  render  it  necessary  to  cultivate.  Some  instruc- 
tion on  these  points  may  be  drawn  from  the  legislation 
of  Congress,  and  the  action  of  the  Federal  Courts,  in 
the  matter  of  patents.  The  grant  of  the  Constitution 
is  to  "authors  and  inventors,"  and,  therefore,  the  con- 
trol of  the  General  Government  is  the  same  over 
each. 

The  first  patent  law,  dated  April  10,  1790,  section 
four,  gives  to  the  injured  patentee  his  actual  damages, 
and  forfeits  the  machine  to  him. 

February  21,  1793.  This  law  was  repealed,  and 
an  infringement  of  the  patent  visited  with  damages, 
equal  to  treble  the  price  of  the  invention,  as  sold  to 
other  persons.  See  section  five.  By  section  seven,  if 
patents  had  been  granted  by  the  States,  before  the 
Constitution,  they  must  be  surrendered,  in  order  to 
have  the  benefit  of  the  act.  Jurisdiction  is  conferred 
upon  the  Circuit  Courts  of  the  United  States. 

An  act  of  the  year  1800  (April  17)  enlarges  the 
law  of  1793,  in  regard  to  persons.  By  the  third 
section  of  this  statute,  the  fifth  section  of  the  then 
existing  law  is  repealed,  and  treble  the  actual  dama- 
ges given  to  the  patentee  or  his  assigns,  who  is  in- 
jured.    The  Circuit  Courts  take  jurisdiction. 

On  the  fourth  of  July,  1836,  another  law  came 
into  existence,  which  in  the  fourteenth  section,  pro- 
vides, that  the  court  may  render  judgment  for  a  sum 
not  exceeding  three  times  the  actual  damage,  as  found 
by  the  jury. 

Here,  as  in  the  case  of  manuscripts,  in  the  copy- 
right law,  Congress  allows  the  recovery  of  damages  in 
the  Federal  Circuit  Courts,  and  adds  a  severe  penalty. 
If  these  enactments  are  considered  as  bestowing  dama- 
ges as  separate  from  the  penalty,  it  is  tttmp&tent  for 
Congress  to  give  to  the  authors  of  maps,  charts,  etc., 


RIGHTS  OF  AUTHORS  OUTSIDE  OF  COPYRIGHTS.         89 

a  right  of  action  entirely  civil  and  compensatory  in 
its  character.  In  fact,  the  law  of  manuscripts  can 
not  well  be  viewed  in  a  different  light. 

In  reference  to  the  extent  of  the  judicial  power 
of  the  Courts  of  the  United  States,  something  may  be 
gathered  from  the  following  decisions: 

In  the  Bank  of  the  United  States  vs.  Deveaux,  et 
al,  5  Cranch,  85,  Supreme  Court,  1809,  it  was  agreed, 
that  the  judiciary  act  conferred  no  jurisdiction  on  the 
Circuit  Courts  arising  from  the  nature  of  the  case, 
but  only  from  the  character  of  the  parties  ;  and  when 
citizens  of  the  same  State  could  enter  that  court,  it 
must  by  under  claims  deduced  from  grants  of  lands 
by  different  States.  And  prior  to  the  law  of  1819 
above  referred  to,  as  distributing  the  jurisdiction  in 
copyrights  and  patents  to  the  several  courts,  a  case 
occurred  in  the  year  1811,  upon  an  infraction  of  the 
rights  of  Fulton  and  Livingston,  relative  to  steamboats 
on  the  Hudson,  of  great  hardship,  where  the  Circuit 
Court  for  New  York  refused  an  injunction,  on  the 
ground  that  neither  the  patent  law  or  the  judiciary  act 
specially  conferred  upon  them  equity  powers.  This 
was  in  Livingston  vs.  Van  Ingen,  HalVs  Am.  Laiv 
Journal,  56;  and  the  Court  say,  "There  being  no 
law  conferring  on  this  court  a  right  to  take  cognizance, 
as  a  Court  of  Equity,  of  cases  of  this  nature,  between 
citizens  of  the  same  State,  our  opinion  is,  that  we  can 
not  entertain  the  present  bill."  In  this  spirit,  the 
Supreme  Court  have  ever  disclaimed  jurisdiction,  un- 
less specially  given  by  the  Constitution  and  laws  pur- 
suant thereto.  And  the  subordinate  Federal  Courtis 
are  equally    cautious  in  assuming  judicial  authority. 

Recurring,  then,  to  the  case  of  authors,  is  it  proba- 
ble that  the   Supreme   Court  of  the   United   States 
would   entertain   a  suit  for  damages,  brought  by  a 
copyright  holder,  for  books,  maps,  etc.  ?    If  they  would 
8* 


90  FUGITIVE     ESSAYS. 

not,  where  is  the  law  bestowing  such  a  power  upon 
the  Circuit  or  District  Courts  ?  Again,  is  the  instance 
here  given  cognizable  by  the  United  States  Judiciary, 
aside  from  the  statute,  or  in  the  absence  of  a  copy- 
right ?  that  is,  have  any  of  the  Federal  Courts  a  claim 
to  enforce  the  common  law  right,  by  a  common  law 
remedy  V  Granting  that  they  have  not,  the  import- 
ance of  our  first  query  is  manifest.  A  negative  an- 
swer to  that  throws  a  duty  at  once  upon  the  State 
Legislatures ;  and  we  are  disposed  to  claim  from  the 
State  Courts  a  point,  which  the  answer  to  the  second 
query  will  settle.  If  the  third  question  is  decided  in  the 
affirmative,  more  legislation  is  due  from  Congress,  as 
it  is  also  if  the  fourth  is  found  in  the  negative.  But 
if  the  negative  of  the  fifth  and  more  important  query 
is  true — also,  the  affirmative  of  the  second,  and  the 
negative  of  the  third;  it  rests  alone  with  the  authors 
themselves  to  claim  of  the  local  courts  that  justice 
which  is  guarantied  to  them,  in  all  cases  of  property, 
by  the  State  Constitutions. 


A  STATEMENT  OF  ELEVATIONS  IN  OHIO, 

With  reference  to  the  Geological  Formations,  and  also  the  Heights 
of  various  points  in  this  State  and  elsewhere. 

[American  Journal  of  Science,  Vol.  xlv,  No.  1,  1843.] 


In  giving  the  levels  for  Ohio,  it  should  be  under- 
stood that  they  have  been  taken  with  reference  to 
Lake  Erie,  as  a  zero.     The  surface  of  Lake  Eric  has 


ELEVATIONS  IN  OHIO.  91 

generally  been  considered  as  five  hundred  and  sixty- 
four  feet  above  tide-water  at  Albany ;  see  the  Report 
for   Michigan,    1839-40.     The   topographer   of   that 
State,  S.  W.  Higgins,  Esq.,  puts  it  at   565,333  feet. 
If  this  last  number  represents  the  levelage   of   the 
Erie  Canal,  it  is  probably  good  for  the  surface  of  the 
Lake,  as  it  was  when  the  surveys  were  made  for  that 
work,  twenty-five  years  since.     The  surface,  however, 
fluctuates  in  the  extreme  about  six  feet,  thus  rendering 
all  measurements  based  upon  the  Lake  as  a  starting 
point,  liable  to  an  error  of  that  amount.     The  Ohio 
Canal  was  explored  in  1824-5,  and  of  course  its  ele- 
vations are  noted  with  regard  to  the  stage  of  water  at 
that  time.     The  difference  between  1816  and  1824  in 
the  surface  of  the  Lake,   will  render  all  our  levels 
along  the   Ohio  Canal,  wThen  referred   to  the  ocean, 
inaccurate  by  that  amount.     In  the  latter  part  of  the 
year   1815,  and   all  of  the  year  1816,  the  Lake  was 
high,  about  four  feet  above  the  point  of  greatest  known 
depression.     From   1819  to  1822  it  was  low,  and   in 
1825  was  still  but  about  two  feet  above  the  lowest 
known  point.    The  error  in  adopting  the  Lake  surface, 
in   1824,  as   a  starting  point,  may  therefore  be  two 
feet,  making  its  general  surface  above  the  tide-water 
at  Albany,  in  1824-5,  five   hundred  and  sixty-three 
feet,  and  at  the  time  of  the  great  rise  in  June,  1838, 
five  hundred  and  sixty-seven  feet.     In  estimating  the 
heights  given  below,  I  have  used  the  commonly  re- 
ceived  number    of   564,   to   express    the    surface  of 
the  Lake.     Both  upon  the  Erie  and  the  Ohio  canals 
and  other  works,  the  slopes   sometimes  given  to  the 
bottom  are   rejected,  because  unknown:  where  there 
is  more  than  one  summit  they  counteract  each  other 
in  some  degree.    Where  there  are  fractional  feet  they 
are  rejected.     In  some  cases  there  are  short  intervals 
not  measured,  or  the  minutes   of  a  portion  of  the 


92 


FUGITIVE  ESSAYS. 


heights  are  wanting,  or  the  authorities  are  contradic- 
tory ;  these  are  designated  by  an  interrogation,  and 
will  go  for  what  they  are  worth.  Information  de- 
rived from  so  many  sources,  and  transcribed  many 
times  from  one  note  book  to  another  by  different 
persons,  must  of  course  be  subject  to  errors.  But 
it  has  been  drawn  from  the  best  authorities,  viz: 
the  profiles  and  reports  of  the  engineers  in  the  public 
employ. 

For  location  of  points  I  have  adopted  Columbus, 
the  capital  of  Ohio,  in  latitude  39°  57'  north,  longi- 
tude 83°  3'  west,  as  the  center  of  reference.  The 
general  course  and  distance  from  Columbus  being 
given,  the  courses  and  distances  of  the  different  places 
among  themselves  may  easily  be  found. 

The  order  of  stratification  in  Ohio  is  as  follows, 
beginning  at  the  lowest  of  our  explored  rocks,  the 
limestone. 

1.  Limestone;  thickness  unknown,  not  exceeding 
1000  feet;  subdivided  as  follows  by  Dr.  Locke:  (1.) 
Blue  limestone  and  blue  limestone  marls,  over  500  feet 
in  thickness;  (2.)  Marl,  25 feet;  (3.)  Flmty  limestone, 
52  feet;  (4.)  Marl,  106  feet;  (5.)  Cliff  limestone,  89 
feet.  This  limestone  is  the  surface  rock  over  about 
two-fifths  of  the  western  part  of  Ohio,  and  extending 
into  Indiana. 

2.  Bituminous  slate,  or  black  shale,  250  to  350 
feet. 

3.  Fine-grained  or  Waverly  sandstone,  25  to  350 
feet. 

4.  Conglomerate  or  pebbled  sand-rock,  100  to  600 
feet. 

5.  Coal  measures,  say  2000  feet. 


ELEVATIONS   IN   OHIO 


93 


Formation  No.  I. — Elevation  of  some  points  at  the  surface  of  the 
limestone  formation  and  at  the  bottom  of  the  slate. 


Place. 

Course  and  distance 
from  Columbus. 

Height  above 
the  ocean. 

Local  dip  per  mile. 

Columbus. 
Bloomingville.   Erie   Co., 

deep  cut  of  railroad 

Dublin,  Franklin  Co 

N.  8UE.100    m. 
N.  36°    W.  11      " 

S.12U°W.  52      - 
S.U]4°W.   80     " 

S.76-%°W.   62    « 

FEET. 

761 

724? 
831 
744 

934 

868 

S.  81°52'E.,  22%ft. 

S.  80}4o  E.,  37.  4  ft. 
N.  14°  E..  6  feet. 

West  Union   Adams  Co.. 

Three  miles  S.  E.  of  Day- 
ton, bottom  of  cliff  lime- 
stone  

With  the  exception  of  Dayton,  these  locations  are 
at  or  near  the  outcrop  of  the  overlapping  slate,  and 
consequently  in  or  near  the  line  of  bearing. 


No.  II. 


-Points  on  the  surface  of  the  black  shale  and  under  face  of  the 
fine-grained  sandstone. 


Place. 

Course  and  distance. 

Height. 

Dip. 

Newburg  village,  Cuyaho- 

N.  41°  E.,  154  miles. 
N.7^°E.,  62    " 
N.  84°  E.,       8     " 
South,          43     " 
S.  3l<°  E.,   83     •' 

FEBT. 

764 
948? 
804 
814 
518 

S.  S.  E.,  very  slight. 

S.  E.,  and  slight. 

f  nearly  E., — about 
\  30  feet  per  mile. 

S.  83°  E.,  31.  99  feet. 

Samlusky  township,  Craw- 
ford Co.  (east  line,) 

Big  Walnut    Creek,   Na- 

Head  of  Paint  Creek  Ca- 

Morse  mill,  on  canal,  near 

The  last  station  is  about  fifteen  miles  east  of  the 
outcrop,  which  accounts  for  its  being  lowrer  in  natural 
level  than  the  others.  This  formation  occupies  a  nar- 
row belt  of  about  twenty  miles  in  width  along  the  Sci- 
ota  valley,  widening  as  it  extends  northward  to  the 
Lake.  It  is  here  about  sixty  miles  in  breadth,  east 
and  west,  and  extends  eastward  in  form  of  a  narrow 
strip  along  the  southern  shore,  to  and  beyond  the 
State  line. 


94 


FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 


No.  III. — Points  on  the  surface  of  the  fine-grained  sandstone,  corres- 
ponding tcith  the  inferior  face  of  the  conglomerate. 


Place. 


Old  Forge,  Portage  township.  Summit  County. 

Near  Chagrin  Falls.  Cuyahoga  County 

Newton  Falls,  Trumbull  County _ 

Narrows  of  Licking,  Ohio  Canal 

Jackrion    township,  Jackson    County,  near  J 
Stinson's   


Course  and  distance. 


N.45-V°E.,ll0miles 
N.  39?i°  E.,  153     M 
N.  5152°  E.,  140     " 
N.77°      E.,    44    «• 

3.  16*4°  E.,    65    " 


Elevation. 

FEET. 

no 

894 
764 


The  fine-grained  sandstone  region  immediately 
succeeds  the  slate,  and  occupies  a  tract  similar  in  form, 
though  not  quite  as  extensive.  Next  to  it,  on  the 
east,  the  conglomerate  is  the  surface  rock,  and  from  a 
narrow  strip  at  the  south,  enlarges,  after  passing  the 
line  of  the  Reserve,  to  a  width  of  fifty  miles,  spread- 
ing over  the  north-eastern  counties. 

No.  V. — Some  points  in  the  lowest  bed  of  coal. 


Place. 

Bearing  from 
Columbus. 

Elevation. 

Dip. 

Brookficld,  Trumbull  Co., 

N.  65%°  E.,  164  m. 
N.  45-%°  E.,  112    " 

N.  85°     E.,  38J^  " 

S.  22K°E..   69    « 

FEET. 

990 
1069 

1014 

760? 

f  Nearly  S., — about 
1  20  f««t. 

S.  33%°E.,1&'.,  f-i-t 
/  S.  87°  ■,— ahonl 

I  35  feet  {«r  mile. 

Eastly  and  variable. 

Tallmadgc.  Summit  Co.... 
National    Road,   between 

J.icktown  and  Gratiot... 
Lick    township.    Jackson 

County 

A  line  drawn  from  the  Portage  summit  north- 
easterly, and  parallel  to  the  Lake  shore,  will  be  a  gen- 
eral boundary  of  the  coal  region  on  the  north  in  Ohio ; 
and  continued  from  this  summit  to  the  Licking  sum- 
mit, and  thence  south  to  the  river;  it  will  form  the 
western  limit  of  this  great  field  extending  to  the  Allc- 
ghanios. 


ELEVATIONS  IN  OHIO.  95 


Elevation  of  placet  in  Ohio. 

Ft  ACE.  ELEVATION— FEE*,  6URF  ACE  ROCK. 

Little  Mountain,  Lake  County 1164        Conglomerate. 

Mantua,  Portage  County,  summit  of  Cha- 
grin and  Cuyahoga  rivers 1140  " 

Mahoning  summit,  Champion,   Trumbull 

County 908        Fine-grained  sandstone 

Brookfield,  Trumbull  County 1164        Coal  measures. 

Portage,  Summit  Lake -.  958        Top  of  Conglomerate. 

High  land  adjacent 1150? 

Ravenna  summit,  Penn.  and  Ohio  Canal ...  1068        Coal  measures. 

Hanover,  Columbiana  County,  Sandy  and 

Beaver  Canal  summit  1123  " 

Huron   summit,    swamp,  S.  E.  corner  of  (Near  junction  of  slate 

county 978         (and  limestone. 

Harrisvillc,  Medina  County.  Kilbuck  sum- 
mit   901        Conglomerate. 

Tyamochtee  summit,  T.   5,   S.,   It.  16,   E. 

Marion  County '. 898        Limestone. 

Blanchard's  fork  of  Anglaise,  2%  miles  E. 

of  Fort  Findlay,  Hancock  County  1052  " 

Loramies  suuimit,   Miami  extension  canal  9i2  " 

Somerset,  Perry  County 1159        Border  of  coal  measures. 

Zanesville— river,  at  bridge  679 

"  hill.  E.  of  town  801         Coal  measurefl. 

Hillsborough,  Highland  County 1124        Limestone. 

Greenville.  Darke  County 1014  " 

Summit   between    Seiota   and  Mad  rivers, 

near  Mechanicsburg.  Champagne  County  1007  " 

Summit  of  Great  Miami  and  Seiota,  Logan 

County 1350?  " 

Height  of  places  in  Michigan,  above  the  ocean. 

FEET. 

Head  waters  of  Rclle  Itiver,  Lapeer  County 992 

Summit  between  waters  of  Saginaw  Bay  and  Lake  Michigan 673 

Poutiac  summit,  Clinton  and  Kalamazoo  Canal 914 

Hillsdale  t  ouuty,  seven  miles  east  of  Jonesville  1211 

Suinm.t  of  i  entral  Railroad,  on  the  line  between  Jackson  and  Washtenaw 

Counties  1015 

Fort  Holmes,  Mackinaw  797 

Height  of  Lakes. 

FEET. 

Ontario 232 

Er.e  '. 565,333 

St.  Clair 570,005 

Huron  and  Michigan  578,008 

Superior 596,180 

Height  of  points  on  the  Ohio. 

FEET. 

Pittsburg 705 

Marietta  5(>7 

Portsmouth  479 

Cincinnati 432 

Summit  of  Wabash  and  Erie  Canal,  near  Fort  Wayne,  Indiana 810 


Jl>  FUGITIVE    ESSAYS. 


FEFf. 

SumriiK  of  Chicago  Creek  and  Illinois  River 696 

Portage,  Fox,  and  Wiskonsan  Rivers,  Fort  Winnebago 609 

Elevations  in  Pennsylvania. 

Conneaut  Lake 1074 

Alleghany  summit,  northern  route  of  Schlatter's  surveys 2002 

Sugar  Run  summit,  two  miles  north  of  Portage  Railroad  summit 2183 

(  he*tnut  Ridge,  National  Road 3612 

K-yscr's     "  "  "       2843 

West  Alexandria IT'.'T 

Washington 1400 

Elevations  in  New  York. 

Chatauque  Lake 1291 

Franklinville,  Chatauque  County,  (in  a  valley) - 1588 

Summit  between  Elm  i  re^k  aud  little  Valley  Creek,  Cattaraugus  County  ...  \~2b 

Summit  between  Big  and  Little  Valley  Creeks "JlM) 

*■  '*        Cayuga  Lake  and  Sunquehanna  River >.<>1 

"  "        Seneca  Lake  and  Chemung  River ,s<J0 

"  "        the  sources  of  the  Alleghany  and  the  waters  of  Lake  Erie, 

at  the  lowest  pass 1-J00 

The  ledge  of  Niagara  limestone  causing  the  cataracts  of  Niagara,  Genesee, 

Oswego  and  Black  Rivers  _ 651 

Height  of  land  between  Buffalo  and  Lewieton 640 

"  «•     between  Buffalo  and  Lockport 590 

Mohawk,  at  Little  Falls 385 

Hills  adjacent 10-7 

Round  top,Catskill  Mountains 3804 

Summit  on  Welland  Canal - 621f 

This  collection  of  altitudes  is  now  published  with 
a  desire  to  bring  out  similar  statements  from  other 
quarters.  Topographical  geology  is  of  the  highest 
value  in  reducing  the  science  from  a  state  of  general 
calculation  to  the  exactness  of  mathematical  rules. 
But  such  results  require  great  labor,  and  make  little 
show  on  paper.  If  the  engineers  and  geologists  of 
the  United  States  would  combine  and  assist  each 
other  by  publications  similar  to  the  above  (excepting 
its  errors),  the  difficulty  of  collecting  such  facts  would 
be  done  away  with  at  once.  This  journal  appears  to 
be  the  most  convenient  organ  of  such  publications. 
When  tables  can  be  formed  showing  the  elevation,  ex- 
tent, thickness,  and  dip  of  the  great  formations  in  the 
individual  States,  topographical  and  geological  models 
may  be  constructed,  which  shall  be  miniature  copies 
of  each. 


A  DISSERTATION  UPON  THE  ORIGIN  OF  MIN- 
ERAL COAL. 

[M.  C.  Younglove,  Cleveland,  1845.] 


INTRODUCTORY  REMARKS. 

The  following  argument  against  an  opinion  almost 
universally  received  by  geologists  was  composed  for 
publication  in  the  American  Journal  of  Science,  and 
was  forwarded  to  the  editor  for  that  purpose  in  1842. 
Professor  Silliman  respectfully  declined  to  insert  it, 
contradicting  as  it  does  his  own  opinions. 

While  traversing  the  State  of  Ohio  some  years 
since,  I  found  that  our  citizens  took  a  lively  interest 
in  whatever  relates  to  geology  and  the  earth,  and  read 
and  reflected  upon  what  is  published  concerning  them. 
Numbers  of  intelligent  men  disputed  with  me  the  doc- 
trine of  the  books,  that  bituminous  coal  is  of  vegetable 
origin.  A  theory  which  met  with  such  general  disbe- 
lief, even  though  among  men  whose  pretensions  to 
science  were  nothing,  must  at  least  possess  something 
unnatural.  Geology  itself  is  little  more  than  an  ab- 
stract of  the  observations  of  individuals;  a  collection 
of  facts,  by  the  labor  of  thousands.  Every  person 
has  to  do  with  the  materials  of  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  and  almost  every  observing  man  examines  these 
substances  with  scrutiny,  and  naturally  reflects  upon 
the  changes  they  have  undergone.  No  subject  of  a 
scientific  kind  is  more  popular  or  better  adapted  to 
the  circumstances  and  capacity  of  the  mass.  When 
a  theory  in  such  a  science,  therefore,  meets  with  almost 
universal  discredit,  this  is  a  reason  for  re-examination 
9 


38  rtoiTirE   essats. 

Ly  men  of  science ;  although  it  may  not  of  itself  go 
far  to  overturn  the  doctrine. 

It  is  certainly  better,  if  it  is  desirable  to  distrib- 
ute "learning  among  men,"  that  the  deductions  of 
books  should  contradict  the  popular  belief  and  com- 
mon observation  as  little  as  possible.  To  reconcile 
discrepancies  between  what  is  called  common  sense, 
and  science,  rather  than  strive  to  widen  the  distance 
between  them,  by  advancing  what  is  mysterious  and* 
incomprehensible. 

With  these  views  I  began  a  review  of  the  doctrine 
of  the  books:  that  coal  is  of  vegetable  and  not  min- 
eral origin ;  and  my  researches  and  observations  have 
converted  to  me  to  the  popular  side,  in  opposition  to 
the  authorities.  Some  of  my  reasons  will  be  found 
in  this  paper. 

I  am  aware  that  to  professed  geologists  my  presen- 
tation of  the  subject  may  not  be  satisfactory.  Like 
myself  heretofore,  they  are  now  committed  to  the 
vegetable  theory,  and  have  a  bias  in  its  favor.  Many 
of  the  professors  in  geology  are  in  advanced  life,  and 
commenced  their  studies  while  the  science  was  in  its 
infancy,  and  when  the  authority  of  books  was  almost 
supreme.  Its  ablest  authors  have  reaffirmed  the  doc- 
trine in  their  books  with  new  arguments  and  facts. 
Dr.  Sangrado  considered  this  a  sufficient  reason  for 
maintaining  his  old  opinions. 

Perhaps  some  of  the  fathers  of  the  science  may 
here  find  enough  to  induce  a  re-examination  of  the 
old  doctrine;  and  wifh  them  many  of  the  younger 
geologists. 

If  this  is  done  in  a  spirit  of  candid  enquiry,  un- 
trammelled by  habit  and  ancient  authority,  and  my 
ideas  should  still  be  regarded  as  erroneous,  the  old 
theory  will  thereby  receive  strength,  and  its  friends 
will  occupy  their  position  with  new  evidences  of  it$ 
correctness. 


ORIGIN   OF   MINERAL   COAL.  99 


STRUCTURE  OF  THE  EARTH— ITS  LAW  OF  HARMONY. 

The  outer  masses  or  crusts  of  the  earth  are  com- 
posed principally  of  earths,  alkalies,  and  oxides,  some- 
times in  combination  with  acids  or  simple  substances, 
such  as  sulphur,  and  phosphorus,  and  sometimes  not. 
We  have  these  facts  by  observation.  They  are  not 
deductions  of  science,  but  matters  of  plain  every  day 
experience.  The  learned  may  know  most  of  the  prop- 
erties and  chemical  composition  of  the  globe  on  which 
we  live,  but  all  men  have  knowledge  enough  to  observe 
a  palpable  difference  between  it  and  the  animals  and 
trees  which  exist  upon  it.  They  call  the  earth  a  ram- 
eral  "kingdom"  to  distinguish  it  from  the  animal,  or 
vegetable  kingdoms.  Geologists  make  use  of  the  same 
terms.  It  is  not  singular,  therefore,  that  the  mass  of 
mankind  are  taken  by  surprise,  when  they  are  told 
that  in  this  grand  division  of  the  universe  called  min- 
eral, there  is  one  exception ;  and  that  an  important 
portion  of  the  Secondary  rocks  are  vegetable  rocks. 
Is  not  this  apparently  an  arbitrary  violation  of  that 
conspicuous  uniformity,  law,  and  order,  which  pervade 
the  universe?  Would  it  not  be  safer,  more  philo- 
sophical, and  even  more  reverent  towards  the  Creator 
himself,  to  forego  the  adoption  of  a  theory  so  contra- 
dictory to  the  spirit  and  harmony  of  his  works  ?  Is 
it  not  better  to  be  without  a  theory,  than  to  adopt  one 
which  is  absurd,  without  the  clearest  proof?  The 
doctrine  we  are  combating  was  one  of  the  earliest 
speculations  of  geologists ;  while  as  yet  the  science 
was  enveloped  in  the  darkness  and  errors  of  its  first 
dawn.  Mr.  Lyell  says  of  the  geological  fathers,  that 
they  "indulged  in  many  visionary  theories."  If  the 
bias  of  their  minds  has  been  to  sustain  their  theories, 
without  careful  examination  as  original  questions,  the 


100 


FUGITIVE     ESSAYS. 


authority  of  the  later  works  taking  the  same  side,  is 
thereby  much  weakened.  Does  not  the  exact  trans- 
mission of  language  and  thoughts,  from  the  early  wri- 
ters down  through  all  the  subsequent  works  to  our 
time,  prove  the  supposition  of  such  a  bias  ? 

Let  us  suppose  the  question  here  started  for  the 
first  time.  That  there  had  hitherto  been  no  theory 
and  consequently  no  prejudice — that  men,  content 
with  an  observation  of  the  rocks,  their  order,  compo- 
sition, and  economical  value,  had  not  speculated  so 
much  upon  their  origin. 

On  the  surface  they  find,  first,  the  drift  or  diluvium, 
composed  of  loose  fragments  of  rocks,  constituting 
gravel,  clays,  marls,  and  sand,  confessedly  of  a  min- 
eral  nature. 

Descending  in  the  natural  order,  next  come  the 
tertiary  formations,  made  up  of  stratified  beds  of  clay, 
limestone,  and  other  rocks.  Still  farther  down  in  the 
body  of  the  earth,  we  strike  the  cretaceous  group, 
with  lime  as  a  base — then  the  green  sand,  composed 
of  earths  and  alkalies — the  oolitic  system  :  of  aluminc 
and  lime — the  red  sandstone,  lime  and  silex.  Nine- 
teen-twentieths  of  the  coal  formation  itself  is  shale, 
sandstone  or  limestone.  It  rests  upon  the  conglome- 
rate, all  silex — that  again  upon  1500  to  2500  feet  of 
aluminous,  calcareous,  and  silicious  rocks,  which, 
whatever  may  be  their  character  or  origin,  we  attrib- 
ute to  one  method,  and  call  them  all  by  the  name  of 
mineral  substances.  At  the  bottom  of  the  Cambrian 
system,  a  different  method  of  formation  is  observed ; 
no  more  organic  remains — no  farther  stratification,  or 
order  of  super-position ;  but  the  same  ingredients  are 
still  present,  lime  silex,  alumine  and  oxides  of  metals, 
even  metals  themselves,  and  they  arc  here  as  else- 
where denominated  minerals.  In  fact  the  younger 
rocks  are  considered  as  composed  of  the  materials  of 


ORIGIN   OF   MINMIAL   COAL.  101 

the  older,  merely  changed  in  position,  and  in  form. 
The  agent  employed  in  this  work  of  change  is  thought 
to  be  water.  It  is  supposed  to  have  possessed,  by  means 
of  heat,  or  acids,  or  some  corrosive  mixtures,  an  ex- 
traordinary solvent  power,  and  strong  chemical  force, 
sufficient  to  effect  the  dissolution  of  the  ancient  or 
primitive  rocks.  Yet  it  is  denied  that  this  menstrum 
could  liquify  bitumen,  and  therefore  we  must  look  for 
some  cause  for  its  production  on  the  spot  where  it  is 
found.  That  not  being  soluble  in  water,  it  could  not 
have  been  taken  up  with  the  materials  of  the  second- 
ary rocks  ;  and  being  specifically  lighter,  could  not 
have  been  deposited  by  that'  fluid.  It  is  moreover 
advanced  as  a  geological  truth,  that  bitumen  did  not 
exist  until  the  era  of  the  secondary  rocks,  because 
none  of  it  is  found  in  the  primary.  If  it  is  settled 
by  observation,  that  the  primitive  rocks  do  not  con- 
tain bitumen,  it  would  readily  be  accounted  for  by  the 
igneous  origin  of  that  great  portion  of  the  earth's 
crust,  during  which  the  heat  would  consume  or  drive 
it  away.  The  heaviest  masses  of  bitumen  are  in 
Trinidad,  Palestine,  and  the  Burman  Empire.  Their 
relation  or  contiguity  to  primitive  rocks,  does  not  seem 
to  have  been  thoroughly  understood,  or  even  exam- 
ined; neither  is  there  any  evidence  to  connect  these 
immense  beds  of  bitumen  with  vegetable  matter. 

Cases  are  known  of  its  presence  in  the  transition 
series,  some  of  which  will  be  given  hereafter.  If  it 
is,  as  contended,  a  kind  of  artificial  compound,  formed 
from  vegetable  matter,  in  the  laboratory  of  nature, 
among  the  secondary  ro£ks,  there  would  not  seem  to 
be  any  necessity  for  its  existence  in  the  transition, 
the  bitumen  of  ihes€  rocks  not  having  been  provided 
in  a  form,  or  in  quality,  for  economical  purposes.  The 
fact  of  its  absence  from  the  primitive  rocks  (if  it  shall 
prove  to  be  a  fact)  may  be  advantageously  compared 
9* 


102  FUGITIVE  ESSAYS. 

with  the  same  state  of  things,  in  regard  to  gypsum, 
salt,  and  other  minerals  of  the  highest  value  to  man, 
which  these  rocks  do  not  furnish.  In  truth,  the  argu- 
ment drawn  from  this  source  is  not  strictly  in  keeping 
with  geological  principles,  for  the  most  striking  pecu- 
liarity of  the  system,  next  to  its  stratification,  is  the 
fact,  that  almost  every  mineral  has  its  peculiar  rock, 
and  it  is  a  common  expression  to  denominate  a  for- 
mation the  "lead  bearing,"  "copper  bearing,"  or 
"tin  bearing"  rock.  It  does  not  follow,  therefore, 
that  coal  should  have  been  found  in  the  primitive  rocks, 
or  that  its  absence  would  be  regarded  as  affecting  the 
question  of  the  manner  of  its  creation,  but  only  the 
order  as  to  time. 

From  the  granite  upwards,  where  we  find  a  strati- 
fied rock,  it  bears  evidence  of  the  action  of  the  water. 
By  this  agent  as  now  universally  conceded,  the  mate- 
rials were  disposed  in  planes  or  strata.  Wide  seas 
rolled  over  the  earth  where  the  dry  land  now  appears. 
Approaching  the  era  of  coal  formation,  the  conglom- 
erate rock  is  deposited  as  a  basis  to  the  series. 
Sometimes  a  coal  stratum  itself  rests  directly  upon 
the  pebble  rock,  but  usually  fifty  or  one  hundred  feet 
of  shales,  sandstone,  ironstone,  limestone,  or  fire  clay 
intervene.  All  these  are  regarded  as  aqueous  depos- 
its at  the  bottom  of  the  ancient  sea.  Ascending, 
through  the  entire  thickness  of  the  coal  series,  it  is  not 
unusual  to  pass  twenty  and  sometimes  thirty  distinct 
beds  of  coal,  separated  by  the  rocks  just  above  named. 
Unless,  then,  the  coal  is  a  product  of  marine  plants, 
there  must  have  been,  during  the  deposition  of  the  coal 
formations,  as  many  radical  changes  in  the  condition 
of  the  surface  of  the  earth  as  there  are  beds  of  coal. 
Most  of  the  fossils  of  that  formation  are  land  plants 
of  large  size,  and  required,  if  not  dry  land  for  their 
roots,  an  atmosphere  for  their  leaves  and  branches. 


ORIGIN  OP   MINERAL   COAL.  103 

The  shales,  limestone,  &c,  could  only  have  been 
deposited  beneath  the  surface  of  water,  and  they 
now  occupy  the  same  area  as  the  coal.  Upon  each 
square  rod  of  ground,  occupied  by  those  twenty  beds 
of  coal,  there  must  have  been  twenty  recedings  of  the 
universal  sea,  twenty  returns,  and  twenty  periods  of 
vegetable  production,  on  the  surface  of  the  earth. 
And  this,  long  before  the  globe  was  fitted  for  the 
permanent  occupation  of  the  vegetables  intended  for 
its  final  state.  For  at  that  epoch,  the  geological 
structure  of  our  planet  was  not  complete.  It  lacked 
a  part  of  the  secondary,  and  all  of  the  tertiary  and 
diluvial  deposits,  since  then  piled  upon  the  coal.  Now, 
although  it  is  sometimes  advanced,  that  large  masses 
of  rock  formations  were  the  result  of  gradual  ac- 
cretions by  marine  animals,  like  the  coral  polypii, 
and  that  these  furnish  an  analogous  case,  the  distinc- 
tion is  in  fact  too  great  to  admit  of  analogy.  Whether 
the  animalculae  originate  the  substance  of  the  rock,  or 
merely  extract  the  mineral  contents  thereof  from  the 
water,  thus  assisting  deposition,  there  is  nothing  un- 
natural in  the  process.  Many  are  marine,  and  calcu- 
lated to  flourish  beneath  the  waters  where  they  are 
found.  If,  instead  of  mollusca  and  Crustacea,  we 
found  the  fossil  remains  of  birds  and  quadrupeds,  and 
attributed  the  rock  formation  to  their  agency,  the  ca- 
ses would  be  parallel,  and  equally  strange. 

STATEMENT  OF  THE  QUESTION. 

My  proposition  is  simply  this :  that  the  coal  and 
coal  bearing  rocks  have  a  common  origin.  If,  there- 
fore, we  call  the  shales,  sandstones,  &c,  of  that  for- 
mation, mineral  in  their  origin,  and  deposited  from 
water,  then  the  coal  must  be  called  mineral  also  ;  and 
an  aqueous  deposit.     If  the  sandstones,  shales,  and 


104  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

iron  beds,  containing  myriads  of  vegetable  fossils,  are 
misnamed,  and  are  in  fact  of  vegetable  parentage, 
then  the  same  term  is  applicable  to  the  beds  of  coal 
contained  within  them. 

The  question  itself  would  be  regarded  as  a  matter 
of  idle  speculation,  if  it  had  not  assumed  a  prominent 
place  in  geological  books  now  read  throughout  the 
world. 

GEOLOGICAL  AND  LITHOLOGICAL  CHARACTER  OF  COAL. 

To  begin  the  comparison:  the  coal  is  stratijhd 
like  the  other  rocks.  Its  external  stratification  is  in 
fact  more  perfect  than  any  other  rock  of  the  coal 
series,  except  the  limestone.  Its  superior  and  inferior 
surfaces  are  more  regular  and  parallel  than  either  the 
shale  or  sandstone.  In  proportion  to  their  thickness, 
the  coal  strata  extend  over  greater  spaces,  without 
being  cut  off  or  lost,  than  any  other.  In  the  roof  of 
a  mine,  the  rock  is  seen  to  change  in  character  very 
often.  A  bed  of  shale,  in  contact  with  the  coal,  is 
displaced  by  a  deposit  of  sandstone ;  and  these  thin 
out  and  thicken  up  rapidly,  while  the  coal  holds  one 
uniform  thickness  and  quality.  The  iron  strata  arc 
more  limited  in  extent  than  the  coal.  The  main  coal 
beds  appear  (when  not  disrupted  by  force)  to  extend 
throughout  the  basin  to  which  they  belong — in 
America  many  hundred  miles  across.  Of  internal 
stratification  or  lamination,  the  slates  and  shales  arc 
considered  as  offering  the  most  perfect  specimens ; 
and  a3  proving,  most  conclusively,  the  fact  of  sedi- 
mentary disposition.  The  lines  or  planes  of  deposit 
are  so  distinct  as  not  to  admit  of  a  moment's  hesita- 
tion. The  stratum  of  shale,  in  which  this  conclusive 
record  of  aqueous  action  is  found,  rests  upon  another; 
which  is  bituminous  coal,  and  that  upon  a  third,  per- 


ORIGIN   OF   MINERAL   COAL.  105 

haps  as  well  laminated  as  the  first.  In  the  case  which 
often  occurs,  where  the  intermediate  bed  is  blue  lime- 
stone, instead  of  coal,  the  marks  of  internal  stratifica- 
tion are  few,  the  fracture  being  as  easy  in  a  vertical 
as  in  a  horizontal  direction.  Yet  without  these  addi- 
tional proofs,  there  is  no  hesitation  in  ascribing  the 
blue  limestone  to  a  mineral  and  watery  origin. 

The  bituminous  coal  is  a  real  slate.  It  generally 
breaks  readily  at  the  vertical  joints  into  rectangular 
blocks.  In  a  horizontal  direction,  or  parallel  to  the 
surface  of  the  bed,  it  splits  into  thin  lamina,  from 
the  thickness  of  paper  to  that  of  a  table  knife. 

By  examining  the  edge  of  a  block  of  coal,  these 
partings  or  leaves  are  made  apparent  to  the  eye,  by 
the  changes  of  color  from  brown  to  jet  black.  The 
sulphuret  of  iron,  and  plates  of  clay,  are  sometimes 
interlaminated.  The  difference  in  color,  at  the  edge 
of  the  specimen,  arises  from  a  difference  in  the  purity 
of  the  lamina.  When  carefully  burned,  the  brown, 
or  lighter  streaks,  will  be  found  to  have  the  most 
ashes,  or  earthy  residue.  This  is  a  general  rule.  If 
the  coal  is  quite  pure,  the  minute  planes  are  less  ap- 
parent, but  as  it  embraces  more  earthy  matter,  it  be- 
comes less  valuable,  and  passes  through  all  grades 
into  bituminous  shale,  which  burns  slowly,  and 
retains  the  slaty  structure  after  the  fire  has  passed 
through. 

In  the  mines  at  New  Castle,  Ohio,  the  iron  pyrites 
take  a  stratified  form,  extending  many  hundred  feet, 
of  a  thickness  not  exceeding  an  inch.  A  layer  of 
shale,  about  three  inches  thick,  occupies  the  middle 
of  a  bed  in  Lawrence  County,  Ohio,  for  many  miles. 
The  top  of  the  stratum  is  different  in  all  coal  beds, 
from  the  bottom,  being  more  impure,  and  consequently 
more  slaty.  In  fact,  cut  a  section  down  through  the 
superior  shale,  into  the  coal  itself,  and  examine    the 


106  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

evidences  of  lamination  in  both,  there  will  be  found 
no  material  difference  in  this  feature,  on  passing  from 
one  to  the  other. 

It  is  probably  a  waste  of  time  to  multiply  proofs 
of  the  stratification  of  coal,  both  internal  and  ex- 
ternal. 

Professor  Hitchcock  (in  his  geology,  p.  54)  makes 
the  following  deductions  from  the  fact  of  stratifica- 
tion— "  All  stratified  rocks  appear  to  have  been  de- 
posited from  water.  Proof — the  manner  in  which  the 
ingredients  are  arranged  in  parallel  strata  and  lamina, 
is  precisely  like  that  of  sub-aqueous  deposits.  By  no 
other  agent  that  we  know  of  is  the  stratified  and 
schistose  arrangement  of  rocks  produced." 

BITUMEN,  AND  ITS  PRESENCE  IN  ROCKS. 

Bitumen  is  not  soluble  in  water ;  and,  therefore, 
it  is  averred,  and  with  much  apparent  force,  that  it 
could  not  have  been  in  suspension  by  water.  And 
more :  it  is  specifically  lighter,  and  could  not  have 
been  deposited  by  that  fluid.  If,  however,  it  can  be 
shown,  that  both  these  things  have  taken  place,  the 
abstract  difficulty  must  give  place  to  the  fact.  And 
whether  a  theory  may  or  may  not  be  found  to  do 
away  with  the  supposed  obstacle,  will  not  be  a  matter 
of  much  importance,  after  the  obstacle  itself  has  been 
forced  out  of  the  way. 

Bitumen,  whether  soluble  or  not,  exudes  from  the 
earth  in  thousands  of  instances,  in  a  liquid  state, 
and  in  connection  with  water.  Now,  for  the  purpose 
of  geological  union,  or  even  of  chemical  action,  the 
great  object  is  gained  when  the  substances  arc  in  a 
state  of  liquefaction;  for  they  are  thus  enabled  to 
obey  their  affinities,  and  move  towards  the  center  of 
attraction. 


ORIGIN   OF  MINERAL   COAL.  107 

In  Ohio,  the  rocks  belotv  the  coal  are  bituminous* 
An  old  salt  well,  in  Liverpool,  Medina  county,  sent 
off  at  first  many  barrels  of  petroleum;  and  this  boring 
is  in  the  slate  formation,  beneath  the  fine  grained 
sandstone.  The  well  is  in  a  valley,  probably  300  feet 
below  the  conglomerate,  and  perhaps  100  feet  above 
Lake  Erie.  The  bitumen  began  to  flow  at  ninety 
feet  from  the  surface.  Dr.  Locke  (Geol.  Rep.  Ohio, 
1839,  p.  271)  says:  "I  have  noticed  that  the  rocks 
above  the  blue  limestone  and  below  the  sandstone  are 
bituminous,  and  occasionally  have  cavities  filled  with 
petroleum,  like  thick  brown  oil."  From  the  blue 
limestone  (a  lower  member  of  the  great  limestone  for- 
mation of  Ohio)  the  upward  section  is  as  follows : 

Cliff  Limestone  and  Marls    ....     272  feet. 

Black  Shale  or  Slate 251     " 

Fine  grained  (or  Waverly)  Sandstone      343     " 
Conglomerate 

The  Black  Shale  is  sometimes  sufficiently  bitumin- 
ous to  burn  with  a  bright  flame.  It  doubtless  con- 
tains bitumen  and  carbonaceous  matter  enough  in  the 
250  feet  to  constitute,  if  collected,  a  heavy  bed  of 
coal.  According  to  the  Geological  Report  of  Michi- 
gan (1838,  p.  8),  there  are  cavities  in  the  limestone 
of  that  peninsula  (called  the  mountain  limestone) 
which  are  filled  with  bitumen.  The  geological  posi- 
tion of  the  rocks  of  Ohio  below  the  conglomerate  has 
been  the  subject  of  much  discussion.  Mr.  Hall,  of 
the  New  York  Survey,  is  confident  that  the  fine 
grained  sandstone  should  be  classed  in  the  Devonian 
System — Am.  Journal  for  January,  1842.  If  this  is 
a  correct  classification  we  have  500  feet  of  rocks,  older 
than  the  old  red  sandstone,  Mat  are  charged  with  bi- 
tumsn,     Tljat  of  the  shale   is   sometimes  distributed 


108  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

throughout  the  mass  in  a  solid  form.  In  other  places 
it  is  liquid,  and  flows  from  the  earth  in  connection 
with  inflammable  gas.  I  have  a  specimen  of  solid  bitu- 
men from  a  septaria,  or  calcareous  spheroid,  imbedded 
in  this  formation ;  which,  when  taken  out,  weighed 
several  pounds. 

The  fine  grained  sandstone  itself  encloses  bitumen, 
disseminated  throughout  its  texture. 

We  have  then  established  beyond  dispute  the  ex- 
istence of  this  substance,  through  a  wide  range  of 
sedimentary  and  stratified  rocks  destitute  of  vegetable 
remains.  If,  therefore,  the  presence  of  vegetable 
reliquiea,  in  the  coal  series,  is  proof  that  the  bitumen 
of  that  formation  is  derived  from  them,  their  absence 
in  the  black  shale  and  limestone  is  evidence  to  sus- 
tain the  assertion,  that  in  the  latter  rocks,  it  is  not 
drawn  from  such  a  source.  Even  in  the  fine  grain ed 
sandstone,  vegetable  fossils  are  most  rare.  Should 
the  friends  of  the  vegetable  theory  abandon  it  as  to 
the  rocks  below  the  fine  grained  sandstone,  supposed 
to  be  the  equivalent  of  the  Portage  and  Gardeau  rocks 
of  New  York,  the  question  will  be  confined  to  the 
animal  and  the  mineral  kingdom. 

For  the  animal  doctrine,  the  evidence  would  be 
found  as  strong  throughout  the  upper  limestone  as  it 
is  for  the  vegetable  in  the  coal.  In  order  to  escape 
ft  natural  inference,  that  a  mineral  substance  had  a 
mineral  origin,  a  resort  is  had  to  two  methods  of 
originating  the  same  thing;  one  chemical,  and  the 
other  animal.  But  even  then,  how  is  the  non-fossil- 
iferous  shale  to  be  provided  ?  By  transportation  from 
other  rocks  ?  How  transported  except  by  the  agency 
of  water  ?  And  how  disseminated  through  the  body 
of  a  rock  if  not  in  solution  or  mechanical  suspension, 
and  intimately  mingled^rith  the  materials  composing 
that  rock,  at  the  time  of  its  deposition  ? 


ORIGIN  OP  MINERAL  COAL.  109 

So  we  have  a  substance  in  existence  at  the  Silu- 
rian epoch,  scattered  widely  through  that  system,  en- 
tering into  the  structure  of  its  rocks,  stratified  with 
it,  before  the  age  of  land  vegetation,  and  probably 
prior  to  the  existence  of  dry  land,  ascribed  to  a  vege- 
table source. 

These  instances  are  selected  from  the  older  rocks, 
beneath  the  coal ;  because  in  regard  to  the  bitumin- 
ous shale,  of  the  coal  series,  it  might  be  claimed  that 
the  bitumen,  being  supplied  in  immense  quantities, 
might  be  included  in  the  sedimentary  rocks  mechani- 
cally, and  by  the  force  of  pressure,  driven,  or  injected 
into  the  pores  of  the  rock.  This,  indeed,  would  have 
little  to  do  with  its  origin;  but  might  obviate,  in  a 
small  degree,  the  necessity  of  solution  in  water.  But 
it  will  never  be  contended  that  it  could  be  forced 
downward  through  800  feet  of  compact  rock,  of  a 
much  earlier  date,  though  such  a  supposition  would  be 
more  rational  than  that  of  a  vegetable  supply.  And 
in  that  case,  there  must  have  been  a  complete  diffu- 
sion of  the  inflammable  principle,  in  an  aqueous  me- 
dium— a  thing  which  is  held  to  be  impossible.  The 
coal  itself  is  not,  therefore,  the  only  magazine  from 
which  liquid  and  solid  bitumen  may  be  drawn. 
Having  shown  that  it  exists,  in  a  form  and  place 
where  there  can  be  no  evidence  found  connecting  it 
with  the  vegetable  kingdom,  it  follows,  that  if  it  is 
true,  that  some  coal  or  bitumen  has  had  such  an  ori- 
gin, it  is  not  true  that  all  of  it  originated  in  that 
manner. 

CARBON,  OXYGEN,  ETC.,  EXIST  IN  ROCKS. 

I  use  the  terms  coal  and  bitumen  together  ;  for 
it  is  in  regard  to  the  bituminous  principle  only  that 
the   difficulty  occurs ;  the  carbon  of  coal  being  con- 
10 


110  FUGITIVE  ESSAYS. 

fessedly  attributable  to  a  mineral  origin.  The  same 
is  true  of  sulphur,  oxygen,  nitrogen,  and  hydrogen, 
constituting,  with  the  metals,  the  mass  of  the  globe. 
It  is  beginning  to  be  a  favorite  theory,  that  the  ani- 
malculae  of  silicious  sedimentary  rocks,  and  the  ma- 
rine animals  of  the  old  lime  rock,  had  a  share  in  fur- 
nishing the  materials  of  those  rocks.  By  this  is 
probably  meant,  not  that  the  animals  created  new  sub- 
stances, but  extracted  them  from  the  waters,  by  which 
they  were  surrounded.  Consequently,  these  materials 
had  a  previous  existence  in  solution  or  combination, 
now  merely  modified  in  form  by  the  power  of  animal 
secretion. 

They  are,  therefore,  in  reality,  of  another  origin, 
that  is  mineral ;  and  if  for  the  sake  of  analogy,  the 
geologist  resorts  to  the  theory  of  animal  formation,  as 
favoring  the  idea  of  a  vegetable  one,  it  will  go  but  a 
small  distance  towards  such  a  result.  If  it  is  sup- 
posed that  the  decaying  bodies  of  the  fossil  races  fur- 
nished the  mass  of  the  great  lime  rock,  for  instance, 
it  will  be  replied  that  the  analysis  of  those  bodies  will 
not  give  the  material  which  remains,  the  quantity  of 
earthy  result  being  in  comparison  nothing ;  the  pres- 
ervation of  form  impossible ;  and  the  whole  doctrine 
of  aqueous  deposition  is  overthrown. 

The  silicious  and  calcareous  coverings  of  marine 
animals,  doubtless,  went  to  increase  the  bulk  of  the 
deposit  which  entombed  them ;  but  these  shields,  in 
general,  correspond  in  composition  with  the  ingre- 
dients suspended  in  the  surrounding  medium,  and  are 
but  a  deposit  from  it. 

FORMATION  OF  COAL  DESCRIBED. 

The  words  of  one  author  do  not  differ  materially 
from  those  of  another,  when  describing  the  origin  of 


ORIGIN  OF  MINERAL  COAL.  Ill 

coal,  and  the  distribution  of  the  vegetable  masses 
which  are  supposed  to  give  rise  to  it.  I  take  those  of 
Professor  Hitchcock,  p.  262.  "  While  the  earth  was 
in  a  state  unfit  for  the  animals  and  plants  now  exist- 
ing upon  it,  it  was  covered  with  a  gigantic  vegetation, 
whose  relics  became  entombed,  and  were  gradually  con- 
verted into  those  beds  of  coal  which  are  now  in  the 
course  of  disinterment." 

The  evidence  of  the  existence  of  tropical  plants 
at  that  period,  with  a  gorgeous  foliage,  comparing  in 
profusion  and  beauty,  with  the  luxuriant  palms  of  the 
equatorial  regions,  is  too  plain  to  leave  a  doubt  on 
the  mind.  The  roofs  of  our  mines  are  ceiled  over 
with  fac  similes  of  that  ancient  vegetation,  preserved 
in  the  perfection  and  freshness  of  life.  These,  how- 
ever, are  distributed  mainly  throughout  the  strata 
above  and  below  the  coal ;  and  less  frequently  in  that 
stratum  itself.  There  is,  in  bituminous  coal,  and  in 
anthracite  also,  an  appearance,  between  the  layers  or 
lamina,  resembling  in  some  degree  the  compressed  frag- 
ments of  wood  or  woody  splinters.  The  substance 
which  remains  is  pure  charcoal,  not  bitumenized,  and 
forms  only  a  small  portion  of  the  mass.  It  is  light 
and  chaffy,  and  bears  no  other  resemblance  to  wood 
than  the  fibrous  structure. 

The  same  appearance  is  common  in  the  sand  rocks 
of  the  coal  region.  Now  it  is  not  maintained  that 
wood  did  not  exist  at  the  coal  period  ;  nor  that  it  was 
not  entombed ;  nor  that  it  was  not  in  certain  circum- 
stances carbonized  or  charred.  Such  processes  still 
go  on,  and  from  various  causes.  In  some  resinous 
tvoods,  a  bituminous  principle  being  present  in  the  tree 
or  plant  would  either  remain  or  be  given  out.  But 
we  look  upon  these  facts  as  mere  incidents  which  oc- 
curred then  and  occur  now  and  always  will  occur, 
while  timber  grows  and  is  subject  to  chemical  action 


112  FUGITIVE  ESSAYS. 

by  acids,  heat  or  pressure ;  and  deny  that  these  are 
great  causes  put  in  operation  to  build  up  this  geologi- 
cal edifice,  the  earth. 

There  does  not  appear  to  be  any  reason  why  the 
coal  plants  should  congregate  in  greater  quanti- 
ties in  the  vertical  space  of  a  few  feet  occupied  by 
a  coal  bed  than  in  the  same  space  in  the  shale  above. 
In  fact  the  shale  generally  seems  to  contain  as  many 
of  them  as  could  be  piled  together  in  the  same  space. 
And  by  observation  these  stems  are  generally  confined 
to  the  shale  and  other  rocks  being  almost  entirely 
wanting  in  the  coal.  The  argument  then,  by  the  evi- 
dence, is  that  the  shales  are  of  vegetable  origin,  and 
that  coal  is  derived  from  some  other  source. 

SUPPLY  OF  VEGETABLE  MATTER 

And  passing  by  this  objection  where  shall  an  ade- 
quate supply  of  woody  fibre  be  sought  for  'i  The  im- 
agination having  no  bounds  to  its  creation  has  con- 
structed a  forest  of  gigantic  growth,  where  towering 
trunks  crowd  against  each  other  for  want  of  space. 
Let  us  dismiss  fancy  and  resort  to  facts.  We  can  com- 
pare the  ancient  productions  with  that  of  our  recent 
western  forests. 

How  much  more  timber  could  grow  at  the  same 
time  upon  the  same  surface  than  we  now  observe ! 
To  the  utmost  it  could  not  exceed  double  the  crop  of 
the  bottom  lands  of  the  west.  What  kind  of  timber 
was  it 2  No  fossil  trunk  has  been  found  exceeding 
sixty  feet  in  height.  The  diameters  of  the  sigillaria, 
though  flattened,  and  consequently  extended  in  width, 
seldom  exceed  two  feet.  Were  these  trees  more  solid, 
did  they  contain  more  bituminous  or  carbonaceous 
matter  than  the  oaks,  hickorys,  and  elms  of  our  for 
ests '(     In  general,  plants  of  the  quickest  growth  con 


ORIGIN  OF  MINERAL  COAL.  113 

tain  more  of  the  watery  and  less  of  the  fibrous  mate- 
rial. The  ancient  growth,  being  tropical,  must  have 
been  rapid. 

But  aside  from  any  mere  deduction,  the  impres- 
sions left  to  us,  showing  the  space  occupied  by  a  trunk 
of  a  size  equal  to  a  large  tree  of  our  times,  are  con- 
clusive to  every  observer  that  they  were  either  hollow, 
or  soft,  spongy,  and  succulent  plants.  Stems  having 
a  diameter  of  one  to  four  inches  become  a  mere  plate, 
like  glass.  Lepidodendra  a  foot  through  are  com- 
pressed into  the  space  of  an  inch  and  less.  Sigillaria 
which  when  found  erect  are  round,  and  have  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  sturdy  tree,  when  bent  down  or  found 
prostrate  beneath  the  weight  of  shale,  present  a  mere 
scale  of  matter  between  the  opposite  bark.  When  the 
limbs  or  bodies  of  coal  plants  are  found  in  a  vertical 
posture,  their  form  is  often  round  and  apparently  per- 
fect. Is  this  body  transformed  to  coal  ?  Very  sel- 
dom indeed.  Its  bark  is  commonly  represented  by  a 
coating  of  coal ;  but  the  body,  by  the  shale  or  sand- 
stone which  surrounds  it.  Sometimes,  especially  with 
stigmaria  and  lepidodendra,  where  branches  pass  up- 
ward from  one  stratum  to  another,  the  stem  is  en- 
gorged with  the  material  of  the  lower  stratum  for 
some  distance  above  its  surface.  This  indicates  a  want 
of  solidity  of  the  parts  or  hollowness  which  allowed 
the  immediate  injection  of  earthy  matter.  Many 
other  facts  might  be  added  to  prove  that  the  ancient 
tropical  ferns  of  the  coal  period  were  even  less  capa- 
ble of  furnishing  carbonaceous  matter  than  our  mod- 
ern plants  or  trees.  The  amount  which  the  latter 
could  have  supplied  will  be  shown  hereafter.  But  was 
it  not  derived  from  the  bark  ?  or  from  the  bodies  of 
thin  and  succulent  plants  not  containing  wood  ?  If 
from  the  bark  alone,  how  was  it  separated  from  the 
bodies  ?  Where  are  the  naked  trunks  that  produced 
10* 


114  FUGITIVE  ESSAYS. 

it  ?  And  if  it  is  matter  of  astonishment  how  the  soil 
of  those  times  could  produce  sufficient  vegetation  for 
a  supply  on  the  supposition  that  every  part  was  worked 
into  coal,  in  what  regions  shall  we  seek  for  that  in- 
credible fertility  which  could  furnish  a  sufficient  quan- 
tity, when  only  an  hundredth  part  of  the  vegetable 
is  converted  ?  When  we  find  a  stratum  of  iron  ore, 
or  of  limestone,  shale,  or  any  other  rock  of  the  sec- 
ondary class,  and  are  told  that  its  materials  were 
brought  from  some  distance,  there  is  nothing  very 
strange  in  the  proposition,  for  we  know  that  v;^t 
quantities  of  these  materials  do  exist  in  various  por- 
tions of  the  earth.  The  question  of  an  adequate 
supply  is  in  these  cases  easily  settled.  But  if  the 
limestone  or  the  iron  are  ascribed  to  a  foreign  source, 
not  mineral,  to  substances  not  found  in  the  earth,  nor 
naturally  belonging  to  it,  it  is  incumbent  on  those  who 
advance  such  an  idea,  to  account  for  the  quantity  of 
this  foreign  matter.  Therefore,  an  enquiry  into  the 
sufficiency  of  the  supply  is  a  material  one. 

AMOUNT  OF  VEGETATION. 

The  backwoodsman  knows  that  the  heaviest  growth 
of  the  western  forest,  with  all  its  leaves  and  brush, 
would  not  bridge  over  the  ground  on  which  it  stands, 
with  a  layer  of  compact  timber  one  half  foot  in  thick- 
ness. This  reduced  to  charcoal  will  diminish  in 
weight  about  eighty  per  cent.  In  this  process  the 
carbonaceous  portions  are  retained,  showing  that  this 
timber  would,  if  converted  into  coal  on  the  spot,  make 
but  a  very  thin  plate,  not  exceeding  and  inch  in  thick- 
ness. The  weight  of  coal  is  from  two  to  five  tenths 
greater  than  water ;  that  of  timber  one-third  to  one- 
loilf  less.  After  the  watery  and  volatile  portions  are 
driven  off,  the  weight  of  the  carbon  and  the  salts  is 


ORIGIN  OP  MINERAL  COAL.  115 

about  twenty  per  cent,  of  the  timber  from  which  it 
came.  A  bed  of  coal  four  feet  thick  would  require, 
on  the  supposition  that  the  ancient  vegetation  was 
double  the  strength  of  the  modern,  and  the  vegetables 
grew  upon  the  same  ground,  twenty-four  successive 
crops  to  complete  the  stratum ;  and  this  without  fur- 
nishing anything  but  the  carbon,  and  not  the  bitu- 
men. From  very  few  modern  trees  can  that  sub- 
stance be  obtained  in  quantity.  Twenty  successive 
beds,  of  the  thickness  of  four  feet,  would  therefore 
call  for  480  times  the  timber  which  can  grow  upon 
the  soil  at  any  one  time.  The  evidence  in  proof  of 
transportation  from  abroad,  as  well  as  reason  and 
analogy,  is  adverse  to  such  a  conclusion.  If  the 
growth  was  contemporaneous  with  the  deposit,  it 
must  have  taken  place  upon  higher  land.  How  could 
it  be  reached  by  the  waters  ?  If  reached,  how  could 
vegetation  continue  ?  Brought  from  a  great  distance, 
how  could  the  most  delicate  fibres  of  a  tender  leaf 
have  been  preserved  as  we  find  them  ?  Not  an  occa- 
sional instance,  but  almost  universally.  And  the 
minute  markings  on  the  exterior  of  the  coal  stems,  is 
it  possible  that  these  should  have  survived  in  all  the 
perfection  of  original  growth  ?  If  the  currents  were 
rapid,  certainly  not ;  if  they  were  moderate,  the  whole 
must  have  perished  by  exposure  during  a  journey  of 
many  hundred  miles,  or  at  least  the  leaves,  bark,  and 
softer  portions. 

In  the  great  coal  field  lying  at  the  western  base 
of  the  Alleghanies,  the  northern  and  southern  axis 
exceeds  500,  and  the  other  150  miles  in  length.  And 
suppose,  instead  of  twenty  strata  there  was  but  one, 
each  square  mile  demands  the  product  of  twenty- 
four,  or  for  one  bed  of  this  basin  more  than  1,000,000 
of  miles,  a  space  greater  than  the  valley  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi, from  which  this  growth  is  to  be  gathered  in. 


116  FUGITIVE     ESSAYS. 

In  a  broad  sea,  what  shall  create  a  current  from 
all  sides  to  the  centre  ?  What  mysterious  agent 
would  guide  the  floating  mass  to  every  part  of  the 
field  in  equal  quantities,  forming  beds  of  equal  thick- 
ness, carry  it  to  the  bottom  in  regular  and  compact 
order,  free  of  the  sediment  of  those  waters,  and  in 
the  next  moment  clothe  it  with  a  heavy  mass  of  the 
same  sediment  ? 

TRANSPORTATION  OF  TIMBER. 

The  Red  River  has  its  rafts,  extending  many  miles 
in  length,  which  float  upon  the  water.  The  timber  is 
detained  by  the  narrowness  of  the  stream,  its  upper 
portions  decay,  and  its  lower  sink  piece-meal  to  the 
bottom. 

The  Missouri  and  Mississippi,  broader  and  more 
powerful  streams,  bear  their  floodwood  in  solitary 
trees  to  the  ocean.  Sometimes  it  descends  to  the 
bottom,  or  is  thrown  upon  the  shore  and  covered 
with  mud.  Here  are  the  prominent  cases  known  to 
us, — the  very  cases  cited  by  geologists  to  sustain 
their  position,  furnishing  nothing  analogous  to  the 
process  required  in  the  formation  of  coal.  Here  we 
have  the  timber  and  the  currents  of  water,  the  sedi- 
ment to  shut  out  the  atmosphere  and  set  the  chemical 
agents  at  work.  The  timber  sinks  in  a  confused 
mass,  the  interstices  are  filled  up  with  mud,  and,  in- 
stead of  carbonization,  there  is  either  rottenness  and 
destruction,  or,  thus  embalmed,  they  are  preserved  in 
kind.  But  waiving  all  other  objections  to  the  supply, 
transportation  and  deposit  of  timber,  the  fact  of  in- 
ternal lamination  in  coal  is  wholly  incompatible  with 
this  doctrine. 


ORIGIN   OF   MINERAL   COAL.  117 


ANALOGY  OF  PEAT. 

Peat  bogs  have  been  called  in  to  aid  in  the  manu- 
facture of  bituminous  coal.  No  stratified  beds  have 
been  found  supposed  to  proceed  from  this  source,  for 
peat  itself  does  not  exist  in  strata ;  but  carbonaceous 
matter,  allied  to  coal,  has  been  observed  ;  and  trunks 
of  resinous  trees  surrounded  by  it  have  become  car- 
bonized. From  this  the  inference  is  taken  that  coal 
might  have  been  formed  under  these  circumstances. 
Now  although  it  is  something  of  an  argument  that  a 
thing  might  be  and  not  outrage  any  law  of  the  uni- 
verse, it  is  a  much  stronger  one  that  it  could  not  be 
unless  such  a  violation  has  taken  place.  Peat  bogs 
do  not  and  can  not  flourish  under  water.  They  are 
the  product  of  vegetation  in  the  northern  latitudes ; 
the  result  of  cold  and  not  of  heat.  The  coal  plants 
are  all  tropical.  Peat  is  mere  alluvion  and  recent, 
never  having  been  found  in  quantity  embraced  in 
rocks.  It  is  an  irregular,  limited,  and  accidental  de- 
posit, having  in  form,  composition,  and  geological 
relation,  about  the  resemblance  to  the  coal  strata, 
that  concretionary  lime  or  calcareous  tufa  has  to  the 
great  limestone  formation. 

TRANSFORMATION  OF  WOOD   INTO  COAL. 

Surturbrand,  Lignite,  Bovey  coal,  and  the  beds 
near  Munden,  are  other  instances  brought  forward  to 
prove  that  it  was  from  real  trees  that  the  coal  beds 
of  the  earth  were  derived.  Here  it  is  said  that  the 
forms  of  timber  exist,  and  are  well  preserved.  It  is, 
I  believe,  from  these  beds  that  Mr.  Parkison  selected 
his  specimens  exhibiting  the  fibrous  structure, — an 
experiment  which  appears  to  have  satisfied  mankind 


118  FUGITIVE    ESSAYS. 

of  the  fact  that  all  coal  has  the  same  woody  repre- 
sentations. These,  however,  belong  to  the  recent 
formations  above  the  coal-bearing  rocks,  the  tertiary 
1  diluvium  and  alluvium.  They  are  only  found  in  limit- 
ed heaps,  scattered  here  and  there  like  the  peat  bogs 
just  noticed,  and  are  not  real  coals. 

At  length  Mr.  Hutton  has  made  a  microscopic 
examination  of  the  Newcastle  coal,  and  testifies  to 
the  fact  of  an  arrangement  resembling  the  vegetable 
structure,  with  distorted  pores  or  tubes,  filled  with  a 
more  volatile  bitumen  than  that  of  the  body  of  the 
coal.  I  have  before  remarked  that  it  is  quite  singu- 
lar that  no  more  vegetable  fossils  are  found  in  the 
coal  strata  and  in  the  limestone  strata  of  the  coal 
formations.  If  they  did  not  grow  upon  the  spot,  but 
were  brought  from  abroad,  it  would  be  incredible  that 
these  strata  should  not  have  enclosed  many  of  them. 
If  the  productions  of  the  immediate  vicinity,  their 
absence  at  the  period  of  the  formation  of  each  parti- 
cular stratum  may  be  accounted  for  by  supposing  a 
cessation  of  growth,  or  an  unfavorable  influence  upon 
vegetation  by  the  material  there  held  in  solution. 
The  impression  of  plants  and  trunks  of  trees  is  what 
we  should  expect  to  find  in  all  the  strata  of  that  pe- 
riod, the  coal  as  well  as  the  sandstone. 

Upon  the  theory  of  mineral  deposition  there 
should  be  at  least  an  occasional  fossil,  and  such  we 
find  to  be  the  case,  but  not  in  so  great  profusion  as  to 
warrant  the  inference  that  the  mass  was  composed  of 
them.  The  limestones  of  the  coal  region  often  ex- 
hibit the  same  scarcity.  Why,  then,  should  the  pre- 
sence of  a  fossil  tree,  with  its  bark,  fibres,  rays,  and 
concentric  layers,  of  itself  alone  furnish  any  more 
proof  that  such  was  its  origin,  than  it  does  of  the 
same  fact  in  the  sandstone?  Was  that  rock  ever 
thought  to  be  a  vegetable  product  on  that  account? 


ORIGIN  OF  MINERAL  COAL.  119 

Is  the  shale  in  which  the  growth  of  that  period  is  de- 
posited for  that  reason  attributed  to  such  an  origin  ? 
All  the  evidence  arising  from  the  mere  presence  of 
plants  applies  to  the  shales  with  multiplied  force.  It 
has  also  been  observed  by  geologists  that  the  shale 
immediately  above  a  coal  bed  is  much  more  bounti- 
fully supplied  with  trunks  and  plants  than  any  where 
else,  lying  in  immediate  contact  with  each  other, 
crossed  and  intermingled  in  a  thousand  directions. 
The  weight  of  authority  is  in  favor  of  a  vegetation 
upon  or  near  the  spot  where  they  now  lie ;  and  the 
consequence  drawn  from  their  existence  by  the  au- 
thor is,  that  this  surplus  of  the  ancient  herbage  was 
not  mineralized.  It  appears  however  to  be  as  fully 
mineralized  here  as  elsewhere,  and  to  have  grown  as 
profusely  as  it  is  possible  for  it  to  vegetate  with  suc- 
cess, to  have  been  buried  under  the  conditions  required 
to  form  coal,  and  yet  this  compound  is  not  produced. 
We  find  only  the  bark  and  leaves  so  converted, — the 
trunks  represented  by  shale,  and  the  interstices,  as 
we  should  naturally  expect,  occupied  by  the  same 
rock.  Now  may  it  not  be  supposed,  with  more  rea- 
son, that  the  coal  being  already  deposited  presented 
to  the  plants  of  the  succeeding  stratum  a  new  stimu- 
lus, prompting  them  to  a  rapid  growth.  That  each 
stratum  has  its  peculiar  botany  is  well  known.  The 
fire  clay  beneath  the  coal  seldom  has  any  thing  but 
the  stigmaria,  and  always  a  plenty  of  that.  This 
plant  is  a  heavy  marine  vegetable,  and  not  belonging 
to  the  land.  It  is  not  even  supposed  to  have  been 
fixed,  but  grew  floating  from  place  to  place.  What 
footing  is  there  for  terrestrial  plants  while  the  stig- 
marian  stratum  or  fire  clay  is  in  formation.  The 
aluminous  and  silicious  shales,  overlaying  the  coal, 
have  their  flora  much  more  abundant  and  various  than 
the  solid  sand-rock,  because  a  more  moderate  and 
quiet  deposition  favored  such  a  result. 


120  FUGITIVE  ESSAYS. 


COMPOSITION  OF  WOOD  AND  COAL. 

But  admitting  that  all  coal  strata  will,  on  exa- 
mination, exhibit  the  marks  of  woody  structure, — 
branches  and  leaves, — if  from  this  fact,  (should  it 
prove  to  be  one)  we  step  to  the  conclusion  that  these 
trees  and  vascular  plants  contained  either  the  quant  it // 
or  the  kind  of  the  elements  which  remain,  we  shall 
be  in  error.  Unless  the  body  of  each  individual  tree 
or  plant  contained  within  itself  the  ingredients  of 
coal,  the  deficiency  must  come  from  some  other  tree 
or  source.  Derived  in  this  manner,  there  must  be  a 
decomposition  in  order  to  receive  the  foreign  ingre- 
dient. And  if  the  woody  fibre  contains  substances 
not  in  the  coal,  a  like  process  must  have  been  passed 
through  in  order  to  allow  them  to  escape.  Such  a 
transformation  would  imply  a  chemical  dissolution  and 
recomposition,  and  this  would  certainly  destroy  the 
texture  of  the  wood,  though  the  form  might  be  pre- 
served. If  it  shall  be  affirmed  that  the  parts  not  de- 
stroyed are  filled  by  the  results  of  those  that  are,  we 
are  forced  to  adopt  the  conclusion  that,  under  the 
effect  of  the  same  agents  acting  together  upon  the 
same  substance,  only  a  part  yielded  to  the"  forces  ap- 
plied, and  a  part  did  not,  the  consequence  of  this 
would  be  that  the  portions  not  overcome  would  retain 
not  only  their  original  form,  but  also  their  nature, 
unchanged. 

An  analysis  of  five  English  coals  gives, 

Carbon 72,23 

Hydrogen (J.44 

Nitrogen 9,79 

Oxygen 10,26 


ORIGIN   OP   MINERAL   COAL.  121 

Three  others  give, — 

Carbon 77,53 

Hydrogen 3,76 

Oxygen 17,24 

No  nitrogen. 

Three  of  the  Ohio  coals  give  the  following  re- 
sults,— 

Carbon 47,745 

Bitumen 40,004 

Four  specimens  from  George's  Creek,  Maryland, 
gave,— 

Carbon 81,37 

Bitumen    .         .         .         .         ..     18.37 

Mr.  Turner,  in  his  work  on  chemistry,  considers 
naphtha,  petroleum,  mineral  tar,  and  other  liquid 
bitumens,  as  composed  essentially  of  the  same  mate- 
rials.    According  to  Dr.  Ure,  naptha  contains,  - 

Carbon 83,04 

Hydrogen 12,81 

Oxygen 4,65 

Nitrogen       ....        -  None. 

On  the  supposition,  in  the  absence  of  analyses, 
that  the  bitumen  of  the  Ohio  and  Maryland  coals  is 
similar  to  Naptha,  we  shall  have  for  Ohio,  carbon — 
80,945 ;  George's  Creek,  carbon— 96,66.  No  vege- 
table can  furnish  within  itself  this  amount  of  carbon. 
Even  pure  fibre  gives  for  carbon  but  51,43.  Mr. 
Liebig  (Organic  Chemistry)  and  Mr.  Buckland  sup- 
pose a  part  of  this  given  off  in  connection  with  the 
11 


122  FUGITIVE     ESSAYS. 

oxygen.  The  fibre  is  only  a  part  of  the  woody  struc- 
ture. So  we  have  only  fifteen  to  twenty  per  cent,  of 
the  mass  of  the  tree  in  the  form  of  carbon. 

Fibre  contains,  in  addition  to  the  51,43  of  carbon, 
hydrogen  5,82,  oxygen  42,73.  The  volatile  parts  of 
wood  form  acids  and  gums. 

The  gummy  and  resinous  portions  of  most  vege- 
tables form  only  a  minute  proportion  of  this  eighty 
per  cent,  of  volatile  matter. 

Take  the  most  favorable  known  case,  the  resinous 
pines,  or  other  conifera,  which  produce  tar  by  distil- 
lation, and  compare  the  proceeds  with  the  bulk  from 
which  it  is  drawn.  The  pine,  however,  is  not  found 
in  connection  with  coal,  nor  is  there  sufficient  evi- 
dence to  show  that  other  resinous  trees  were  present. 

SUPPLY  OF  CARBON. 

From  whence,  then,  is  the  carbon  of  bituminous 
and  anthracite  coals  to  be  obtained  ?  From  the  ani- 
mal world  or  from  the  mineral  ?  Should  it  be  found 
necessary  to  resort  to  the  latter  kingdom  for  any  part 
of  the  supply,  all  necessity  for  the  assistance  of  the 
vegetable  is  done  away ;  for  the  theory  takes  its 
existence  and  force  from  a  supposed  want  of  bitumen 
in  the  original  structure  of  the  earth. 

EARTHY  RESIDUE  OF  WOOD  AND  COAL. 

Again,  where  are  the  earthy  constituents  of  wood 
which  should  remain  in  the  coal  ?  In  the  report  of 
the  re-survey  of  Massachusetts  it  is  said, — "  When 
we  look  at  the  analysis  of  vegetables  we  find  these 
inorganic  principles  constant  constituents,  namely, 
silica  lime,  magnesia,  oxide  of  iron,  potash,  soda. 
Hence  these  will  be  found  constituents  of  all  soils." 


ORIGINAL   OF   MINERAL   COAL.  123 

In  the  supposed  change  which  vegetables  undergo  in 
the  process  of  carbonization,  is  the  disorganization 
less  complete  than  in  the  decay  of  timber  and  leaves 
which  enter  into  the  composition  of  soils?  Coal  con- 
tains neither  lime,  potash,  magnesia,  or  soda.  Five 
western  soils  gave  by  analysis, 

Sulphate  of  lime  .  .  2,32 
Phosphate  "  .  .  .  0,66 
Four  of  these,  Carbonate  "...  2,22  go  to 
the  resinous  trees.  The  ashes  of  the  pinusabres  con- 
tain three  per  cent,  of  phosphate  of  lime  ;  and  even 
the  pollen  of  the  same  tree  has  the  same  per  centage. 
The  average  phosphate  of  the  birch,  basswood  (or 
linn),  and  oak  is  4,83  per  cent.  All  vegetation  seems 
to  imbibe  the  earths  and  salts,  which  are  given  back 
to  the  soils  by  their  decay.  Such  a  result  is  inevit- 
able. The  material  not  being  destructible,  even  by 
passing  through  the  fire,  which  reduces  the  fibre  to 
ashes,  nor  volatile  like  a  gas,  necessarily  remains 
with  the  residue,  and  if  it  ever  entered  the  plant 
would  still  have  been  found  in  its  remains. 

In  morphia,  sweet  almond  oil,  and  a  few  other 
artificial  vegetable  extracts,  nitrogen  has  been  found. 
In  the  two  compounds  just  named  5,53  per  cent,  (ac- 
cording to  Dumas),  but  with  none  according  to  Dr. 
Thompson.  Indigo  and  Cinchonia  have  nine  to 
twelve  per  cent, 

SUPPLY  OF  NITROGEN,  ETC. 

From  whence  is  the  nitrogen  of  the  five  English 
coals  derived  ?  If  the  guns  and  resins  are  analogous 
to  the  bitumen,  which  it  is  claimed  is  produced  from 
them,  they  can  not  furnish  it.  The  woody  fibre  can 
not,  and  the  mineral  world  is  present  with  bountiful 


124  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

supplies.  Here  it  exists,  and  forms  its  combinations, 
why  not  enter  into  coal  ?  So  with  the  carbon  and 
hydrogen.  All  the  materials  have  a  being  in  a  mine- 
ral state, — are  placed  in  contact  under  circumstances 
favorable  to  obey  their  chemical  affinities ;  whence 
therefore  arises  the  necessity  for  crowding  aside  a 
simple,  consistent,  and  natural  explanation  to  intro- 
duce another,  which  is  marvellous  and  inconsistent. 
Probably  no  theory  will  completely  explain  every 
thing  which  is  seen  in  connection  with  the  coal  beds. 
There  are  some  phenomena  in  every  rock  which  per- 
plex the  geologist.  The  true  philosophy  is  to  adopt 
the  fullest  and  most  rational  theory,  or  none  at  all. 
It  is  not  the  duty  of  a  geologist  to  speculate  upon  the 
creation,  and  account  for  every  strange  appearance 
he  may  discover.  He  is  not  bound  to  do  this.  It 
may  be  considered  an  accomplishment  and  a  subject 
worthy  of  study,  but  he  has  high  practical  functions 
to  fulfil,  dealing  rather  with  the  mineral  properties, 
the  economical  value  of  the  rocks,  as  they  exist,  than 
with  the  manner  of  their  existence.  My  object  is  to 
oifer  reasons  why  the  coal  strata  should  not  be  separ- 
ated from  the  coal-bearing  rocks,  in  the  method  of 
their  creation,  not  to  account  for  all  the  observed 
phenomena  connected  with  them.  I  have  referred  the 
coal  to  a  mineral  origin,  because  geologists  refer  the 
adjacent  rocks  to  that  system.  By  it  most,  if  not  all, 
of  the  attending  facts  may  be  accounted  for,  perhaps 
as  many  as  of  any  other  rock;  but  this  is  a  separate 
discussion,  for  which  there  is  not  room  here ;  and  by 
it  we  are  not  driven  to  imagination  upon  imagination 
in  order  to  make  out  a  case.  We  escape  the  incon- 
sistency of  supposing  that  the  vegetation  of  the  sur- 
face of  the  globe  became  necessary  to  the  upbuilding 
of  its  mass.  The  incredible  fancy  that  the  unfinished 
earth  destined  for  vegetation  should,  in  this  stage  of 


ORIGIN   OF    MINERAL   COAL.  125 

its  creation,  produce  a  growth  inconceivably  heavier 
than  it  now  does  in  its  perfect  state. 

That  this  precipitate  verdure  should,  while  occu- 
pying the  valleys  and  hill  sides  of  that  day,  be  gath- 
ered in  from  the  wide-spread  regions  around,  and 
consigned  to  the  bottom  of  a  sea  in  a  separate  mass. 
The  withdrawal  of  that  sea  to  allow  further  vegeta- 
tion, its  return  to  harvest  and  bring  it  home  repeated 
many  times. 

These  arguments  may  not  be  regarded  as  conclu- 
sive, but  appear  to  me  worthy  of  consideration.  Geo- 
logy is  not  in  its  nature  a  science  capable  of  exact 
demonstration  in  many  important  points.  It  may  be 
presumptive  to  question  a  doctrine  as  old  as  the 
science  itself;  but  errors  have  been  maintained  for  a 
longer  period  than  this  in  every  department  of  know- 
ledge. The  doctrine  was  adopted  when  but  a  very 
small  proportion  of  the  coal  regions  of  the  earth  were 
known,  by  men  who  based  their  opinions  upon  the 
brown  coal  of  the  tertiary  system ;  they  may  have  in 
this,  as  in  other  cases,  adopted  a  "  visionary  theory." 
If  it  is  so,  for  the  credit  of  the  science  among  man- 
kind at  large,  it  can  not  be  exposed  too  soon. 

My  convictions  on  the  subject  are  of  some  years' 
standing ;  they  are  made  public  with  full  confidence 
that  the  facts  falling  within  my  limited  observation 
can  be  reconciled  in  no  other  way.  At  the  same  time 
I  can  not  say  that  others  more  learned,  with  more 
extensive  resources  of  information  (and  consequently 
more  light,)  and  especially  with  the  opportunity  of 
personal  examination  in  different  continents,  may  not 
be  as  much  at  a  loss  to  reconcile  what  they  have  seen 
and  known  by  the  theory  here  advanced,  as  I  have 
been  by  the  doctrine  of  the  books. 


11 


126  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 


LORD  DUNMORE'S  EXPEDITION  TO  THE 
SCIOTA  TOWNS,  1774. 


[Sandford  &  Co.,  Cleveland,  1842. 


Gentlemen  of  the  Historical  Society, — 

In  the  selection  of  a  subject  for  this  discourse, 
it  seemed  to  me  necessary  that  it  should  be  of  an 
historical  rather  than  a  philosophical  kind.  It  is  evi- 
dent, from  the  circumstances  which  attended  the 
formation  of  this  society,  that  it  was  originally  intend- 
ed for  historical  purposes  only.  The  gentlmen  who 
brought  it  into  existence  were  not  men  of  philosophi- 
cal acquirements,  though  many  of  them  were  possessed 
of  profound  general  learning:  they  were,  in  the  old 
phrase,  the  "pioneers  of  the  country."  The  striking 
circumstances  of  that  undertaking  were  still  held  in 
vivid  recollection  by  them,  and  they  felt  that  this 
thorough  revolution,  effected  through  their  means, 
was  worthy  of  a  history  in  detail.  They  found  here, 
at  their  coming,  nothing  but  a  wild  though  luxuriant 
waste,  occupied  by  a  barbarian  race,  who  drew  their 
supplies  from  the  spontaneous  abundance  of  nature, 
always  consuming,  and  rarely  if  ever  producing.  The 
Indian  occupant,  although  he  had  held  undisputed 
possession  for  a  period  of  perhaps  one  thousand  years, 
had  formed  no  permanent  connection  with  the  soil. 
He  had  not  fulfilled  the  apparent  design  of  heaven, 
that  the  earth  should  become  every  where  the  scene 
of  cultivation  and  permanent  habitation.    He  roamed 


LORD  DUNMORE's  EXPEDITION.  127 

through  the  land,  like  the  wild  animals  of  whom  he 
was  in  chase,  a  passing  wanderer  rather  than  a  fixed 
resident,  leaving  behind  him  no  marks  of  his  presence 
save  the  rubbish  of  his  wigwam  and  the  ashes  at  its 
door.  The  falling  leaves  of  autumn  concealed  the 
one,  and  the  decay  of  the  seasons  dissipated  the 
other.  Even  the  places  of  his  burial,  which  men  love 
to  make  known  by  permanent  objects,  were  without 
other  monuments  than  a  small  white  flag,  rudely  fas- 
tened to  a  pole,  and  a  hieroglyphic  record  of  the  ene- 
mies he  had  slain  in  battle  carved  upon  a  tree.  This 
luxuriant  soil,  destined  for  the  sustenance  of  many 
millions,  expended  its  powers  in  the  production  of  an 
annual  crop  of  weeds  and  flowers,  to  go  annually  into 
decay  upon  the  spot  where  they  grew.  The  riches 
of  the  mineral  world  lay  dormant  and  unknown.  The 
mechanical  agency  of  our  streams  was  not  brought 
into  requisition,  and  the  great  lakes,  instead  of  being 
the  medium  of  communication  between  opposite  and 
distant  countries,  were  impassable  to  the  Indian  in 
his  light  canoe.  Not  one  of  the  abundant  resources 
of  nature  was  fully  developed. 

AVe  now  observe  every  where  the  exact  reverse  of 
all  these  things,  and  those  men  who  may  be  considered 
the  founders  of  the  Historical  Society  were  eye-wit- 
nesses of  and  participators  in  the  change.  The  inci- 
dents attending  it  were  necessarily  interesting,  and  it 
became  to  them,  now  in  the  decline  of  years,  a  matter 
of  high  consequence  that  there  should  be  a  common 
repository,  where  each  might  place  on  record  the 
reminiscences  of  his  early  life.  And  to  all  others, 
and  to  posterity,  it  is  of  importance  that  the  heroic 
enterprise  of  those  men,  whose  bravery  and  endurance 
has  perhaps  no  parallel,  even  in  the  relations  of  fic- 
tion, should  be  authenticated  and  made  public. 

It  would  then  be  a  deviation  in   me  from   the 


128  FUGITIVE     ESSAYS. 

wishes  of  the  projectors  of  this  institution,  and  doubt- 
less of  its  present  members,  to  introduce  any  other4/ 
than  an  historical  subject.  I  have  therefore  collected { 
some  facts  relative  to  the  expedition  of  Lord  Dun- 
more  into  this  region  in  the  fall  of  1774.  With  the 
opportunity  allowed  me,  it  will  not  be  expected  that 
much  original  information  can  be  presented  to  you  in 
relation  to  this  campaign. 

With  this,  as  with  most  of  the  early  war  parties 
beyond  the  Ohio,  no  journalist  or  regular  diarist  ap- 
pears to  have  been  present.  It  is  indeed  probable 
that  there  may  be,  among  the  descendants  of  the 
officers  and  soldiers  connected  with  those  military 
expeditions,  the  remains  of  memoranda  of  dates, 
deaths,  and  other  incidents,  still  in  existence.  We 
might  reasonably  expect  to  find,  either  in  Virginia  or 
England,  a  sketch  of  the  operations  of  Lord  Dun- 
more,  prepared  by  himself,  his  secretary,  adjutant,  or 
some  of  the  surgeons.  An  address  to  the  Historical 
Society  of  Virginia,  and  some  individual  or  British 
Society  in  London,  would  doubtless  bring  to  light 
something  of  the  kind.* 

There  were  also  several  incursions  from  Virginia, 
Pennsylvania,  and  Kentucky,  into  the  country  now 
called  Ohio,  between  the  time  of  Dunmore's  expedi- 
tion and  the  campaigns  of  St.  Clair  and  Harmar. 
These  were  often  mere  marauding  parties  of  indivi- 
dual and  not  official  enterprise ;  but  at  this  day  it  is 
impracticable  to  obtain  many  details  respecting  them. 

*  Since  the  delivery  of  this  discourse,  a  letter  from  John  Con- 
nally  to  Colonel  George  Washington,  dated  Winchester,  Va.,  Feb. 
9,  1775,  has  fallen  under  my  observation,  and  contains  the  follow- 
ing paragraph :  — 

44 1  have  transmitted  a  copy  of  the  Treaty  to  his  Excellency, 
and  should  have  sent  you  one  also,  only  as  I  have  desired  the 
journal  of  the  expedition  to  be  printed  including  the  whole,  I 
deemed  it  unnecessary." 


LORD   DUN  MORE*  S   EXPEDITION.  129 

They  were  composed  of  dauntless  men,  who  thought, 
fought,  and  acted,  with  great  energy,  but  seldom  or 
never  wrote. 

In  1778  Major  Mcintosh  collected  a  party  in 
Pennsylvania,  and  penetrated  the  Indian  country  to 
the  Muskingum  river,  near  Bolivar,  in  Tuscarawas 
county,  and  built  Fort  Laurens.  His  route  was  along 
the  Tuscarawas  trail,  a  track  or  highway  of  the 
aborigines,  portions  of  which  are  still  visible  on  the 
waters  of  the  Little  Beaver  and  Sandy  rivers. 

In  1782  General  George  Rogers  Clark  issued 
from  Kentucky  at  the  mouth  of  the  Licking  (opposite 
Cincinnati),  with  a  small  command,  and  proceeded  to 
destroy  the  Pickawee,  Chillicothe,  and  Wills  towns, 
situated  on  the  upper  waters  of  the  Great  Miami. 
There  is  an  intimation  that  this  was  not  his  first  ex- 
pedition against  the  Pickawee  towns.  The  Wapa- 
tomaka  villages  on  the  Muskingum,  near  where  the 
town  of  Dresden  now  is,  were  attacked  and  destroyed 
in  July,  1774,  by  a  party  of  four  hundred  men  under 
Major  McDonald. 

In  the  year  1782  Colonel  Williamson,  who  had 
accompanied  Lord  Dunmore  seven  years  previous, 
embodied  a  force  in  Pennsylvania,  and  came  to  the 
Moravian  towns,  on  the  Upper  Muskingum,  where 
was  committed  the  noted  massacre  of  the  Christian 
Indians.  Soon  after  Colonel  Crawford  made  his  un- 
fortunate advance  upon  the  tribes  and  villages  on  the 
waters  of  the  Sandusky,  by  way  of  Fort  Laurens. 
Other  expeditions  are  reported  to  have  taken  place 
from  time  to  time,  but  there  is  very  little  known  res- 
pecting them.  I  have  made  mention  of  them  here 
for  the  purpose  of  calling  the  attention  of  gentlemen 
travelling  in  Kentucky  and  Pennsylvania  to  the  sub- 
ject, hoping  that  something  of  importance  may  thus 
be  collected  from  the  survivors  or  their  families. 


130  FUGITIVE  ESSAYS. 

The  meagre  details  which  I  am  able  to  find  in  our 
printed  histories  concerning  the  operations  of  Dun- 
more  in  the  Indian  country,  show  us  how  little  is 
known  of  the  transactions  of  that  eventful  period. 

To  understand  fully  the  immediate  causes  of  Dun- 
more' s  war,  we  should  refer  a  moment  to  the  previous 
relations  of  the  Indian  tribes  to  the  French  and  Eng- 
lish colonists  in  America. 

The  French  established  themselves  at  Montreal  in 
the  year  1607-8,  about  the  time  of  the  settlement  of 
Jamestown,  Va.,  by  the  English.  Prior  to  the  year 
1642  the  "  Six  Nations,"  as  the  confederacy  occupy- 
ing Lake  Ontario  and  the  east  end  of  Lake  Erie  wis 
called,  had  given  only  occasional  trouble  to  the  British 
colonists ;  in  fact  they  had  held  amicable  meetings 
and  perfected  treaties  of  friendship.  The  colony  of 
Win.  Penn,  after  the  influence  of  the  French  had 
ceased,  reposed  much  confidence  in  the  northern  In- 
dians, regarding  them  as  stedfast  friends.  It  was 
otherwise  with  the  western  and  Scioto  tribes,  em- 
bracing the  Shawanese,  Delawares,  Mingoes,  Taw  as, 
and  Wyandots,  occupying  at  that  period  the  Waters 
of  the  Scioto  and  that  portion  of  Lake  Erie  west  of 
the  Cuyahoga  river.  The  French  had  taken  possession 
of  their  country  and  their  friendship  at  an  early  day. 
The  Jesuit  Missionaries  were  at  Onondoga  in  1656, 
and  were  found  by  La  Salle  at  many  places  on  the 
lakes  and  on  the  Illinois  river  in  1680.  There  are 
other  evidences  of  their  early  occupation.  I  saw 
during  the  last  summer  the  stump  of  an  oak  tree, 
upon  the  farm  of  Hezekiah  Chidester,  in  Canfield, 
Trumbull  county,  in  this  State,  which  had  been  cut 
by  an  axe  when  the  tree  was  young,  doubtless  the 
work  of  the  French  adventurers.  Relying  upon  the 
circles  of  growth  as  each  corresponding  with  a  year  in 
time,  this  cutting  was  niad<j  180  years  previous,  or  in 


LORD   DUNMORE's    EXPEDITION.  131 

the  year  1660.  Axe  marks  were  found  in  a  white- 
wood,  or  poplar  log,  in  Newburgh,  Cuyahoga  county, 
some  years  since,  of  about  the  same  age.  These 
wandering  Jesuits  were  soon  followed  by  traders,  and 
the  latter  by  a  few  ardent  discoverers,  each  pushing 
his  way  in  advance  of  the  other,  till  at  last,  having 
having  passed  through  the  entire  length  of  the  north- 
ern lakes,  they  struck  upon  the  Mississippi,  and  this 
led  them  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  ocean. 

The  relations  of  the  French  government  to  the 
English  being  those  of  perpetual  jealousy  and  con- 
flict, and  the  former  power  having  now  encircled  the 
possessions  of  the  latter  in  America,  with  a  chain  of 
posts  in  full  communication,  they  mutually  transferred 
a  portion  of  their  warlike  operations  to  their  respec- 
tive colonies  here.  The  actual  occupation  of  the 
English,  in  1754,  was  limited  on  the  west  by  the 
Alleghanies.  The  activity  and  enterprise  of  the 
French  had  so  far  outstripped  that  of  the  English, 
that  while  the  attention  of  the  colonists  was  directed 
to  the  reduction  of  the  French  power  about  the  Bay 
of  Fundy  and  Lake  Champlain,  they  were  unexpect- 
edly surrounded  by  a  cordon  of  fortresses,  sustained 
by  a  formidable  savage  force.  By  the  treaty  of  Aix- 
la-Chapelle,  in  1748,  the  differences  between  the  res- 
pective colonies  of  Nova  Scotia  and  New  England 
were  arranged ;  but  the  question  relative  to  western 
possessions  were  left  for  reference  to  an  arbitration 
in  the  field.  The  western  Indians,  having  their  na- 
tive hostility  to  the  English  well  inflamed  by  the 
efforts  of  French  traders,  officers,  and  priests,  entered 
upon  the  French  war  with  more  than  usual  vigor. 
This  contest  continued  eight  years,  and  resulted  in 
the  complete  abandonment  of  their  Indian  allies  on 
the  part  of  the  French,  and  the  confirmation  to  Great 
Britain,  by  the  treaty  of  Paris,  1763,  of  all  the  French 


132  FUGITIVE  ESSAYS. 

possessions  in  North  America.  In  this  condition,  the 
western  confederations,  left  to  cope  single-handed 
with  the  whites,  now  crowding  upon  their  territory, 
seem  to  have  hesitated  for  a  time  as  to  the  policy  it 
became  them  to  pursue.  They  were  numerous  in  the 
field,  delighting  in  war,  burning  with  revenge,  and 
anxious  to  preserve  a  country  to  which  they  were 
attached  from  further  encroachments.  On  the  other 
hand  were  the  sturdy  colonists,  indulging  a  thorough 
hatred  of  their  red  enemy,  thirsting  for  the  possession 
of  his  soil,  full  of  courage,  and  capable  of  endurance 
as  soldiers.  War,  under  these  circumstances,  could 
not  long  be  deferred;  and  accordingly,  in  1774, 
eleven  years  after  the^reaty  of  Paris,  a  general  con- 
flict began,  which  continued — with  unexampled  fierce- 
ness and  attended  by  peculiar  horrors — until  the  vic- 
tory of  Wayne  at  the  Maumee  Rapids,  in  August, 
1794.  It  is  of  the  leading  expedition  of  that  war 
that  I  propose  to  give  some  account. 

The  immediate  rupture  was  occasioned  by  murders 
on  the  part  of  the  whites,  in  the  following  manner : 

After  the  French  claims  to  the  lands  upon  the 
Ohio  were  disposed  of,  the  colonies  of  Virginia  and 
Wm,  Penn  set  up  common  title  to  the  country  about 
the  confluence  of  the  Alleghany  and  Monongahela 
rivers.  The  followers  of  Wm.  Penn,  adopting  the 
French  rather  than  the  English  policy  towards  the 
Indians,  had  thoroughly  conciliated  such  of  them  as 
were  within  their  settlements,  and  lived  with  them  as 
friends  and  brothers.  Penn's  successors  were  in  pos- 
session. In  the  spring  of  1774,  Lord  Dunmore,  as 
the  Provincial  Governor  of  Virginia,  issued  a  procla- 
mation warning  all  the  inhabitants  west  of  Laurel 
Hill  of   their  allegiance  to  that  colony.*     And  an 

*  American  Archives,  4th  Series,  Vol.  I,  p.  790. 


LORD 


133 


agent  of  Governor  Dunmore,  by  the  name  of  Conolly, 
contrived  to  get  possession  of  Fort  Pitt  in  the  name 
of  Virginia.  The  Governor  of  Pennsylvania  put 
forth  a  counter  proclamation,  and  the  Westmoreland 
militia  were  mustered  into  service,  partly  on  aceount 
of  Indian  disturbances,  and  also  to  sustain  the  autho- 
rity of  Pennsylvania.  About  this  time  a  party  of 
Delawares  and  Shawanese,  on  account  of  their  friend- 
ship for  the  Pennsylvanians,  escorted  a  party  of  their 
traders  up  the  Ohio  in  safety  to  Fort  Pitt.  Conolly, 
the  Virginia  agent,  fell  upon  this  band  by  surprise, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Big  Beaver,  and  wounded  Silver- 
heels,  their  chief.  On  the  23d  of  April,  a  party, 
headed  by  Captain  Michael  Cresap,  killed  two  In- 
dians a  short  distance  above  Wheeling.*  He  also 
attacked  a  camp  below  Wheeling  the  same  day,  and 
killed  several.  The  next  day,  one  Daniel  Greathouse, 
his  two  brothers,  and  twenty-one  men,  massacred 
eleven  Indians  at  Baker's  tavern,  which  is  forty  miles 
above  Wheeling,  and  nearly  opposite  the  mouth  of 
Yellow  Creek. f  This  is  the  affair  to  which  Logan, 
the  Mingo  chief,  refers  in  his  famous  speech,  suppos- 
ing it  to  have  been  conducted  by  Cresap. 

Logan  was  in  camp  opposite  Baker's,  and  was 
probably  among  those  who  attempted  to  cross  over 
to  the  tavern  after  the  first  slaughter.^  He  is  known 
to  have  lost  some  female  relatives  at  Baker's,  and 
other  connections  at  the  camp  which  Michael  Cresap 
attacked.  The  excuse  offered  by  the  whites  for  the 
commission  of  these  murders  was,  that  the   Indians 


*  Letter  of  Devereux  Smith,  June  10,  1774.  American  Ar- 
chives, Vol.  I,  pp.  344— 4G7. 

■f  Declaration  of  John  Sappington.  Jefferson's  Notes,  Appen- 
dix, p.  46.     Also  of  Charles  Polke,  p.  20. 

J  Jefferson's  Notes,  Appendix,  p.  44.  An  affidavit  of  James 
Chambers,  p.  24. 

12 


134  FUGITIVE  ESSAYS. 

had  committed  some  late  robberies,  and  premeditated 
a    general   attack   upon    the    frontier    settlements.* 

*  In  the  fall  of  1850  the  following  communication  was  pub- 
lished in  the  Pittsburg  Gazette,  relating  to  the  Yellow  Creek  mur- 
ders : — 

The  YelloW  Creek  Murder  and  Logan's  Si'eech. — This 
truly  eloquent  speech,  in  which  the  guilt  of  the  murders  near 
Yellow  Creek  is  charged  upon  Colonel  Cresap,  has  given  to  that 
occurrence  a  prominence  in  our  history  beyond  that  of  any  other 
of  similar  character.  The  writer  of  this  article  became  early 
satisfied  that  great  injustice  was  done  to  a  brave  man  and  a  patriot 
in  that  admirable  production,  whether  it  was  really  the  work  of 
Logan  or  some  other  person,  and  he  was  led,  by  a  desire  to  excul- 
pate one  who,  in  that  case  at  least,  was  innocent,  to  collect  what 
evidence  he  could  for  that  purpose. 

In  course  of  his  enquiries  he  ascertained,  some  two  years  ago, 
that  there  was  living  in  Ohio,  a  few  miles  below  Yellow  Creek,  a 
certain  Michael  Myers,  the  very  man  who  shed  the  first  blood 
which  led  to  the  killing  of  the  Indians  near  Yellow  Creek. 

He  then  determined  to  embrace  some  early  opportunity  to  ob- 
t  tin  Myers'  statement  from  himself,  although  his  informant,  Mr. 
Sloan,  a  respectable  and  intelligent  gentleman,  and  neighbor  of 
Myers,  had  often  heard  his  story,  and  repeated  it  to  the  writer. 

On  the  21st  of  February  last  the  writer  called  on  Mr.  Myers,  in 
company  with  his  neighbor,  Mr.  Sloan. 

He  found  him  a  stout,  vigorous  old  man ;  his  memory  seemed 
good,  except  in  the  recollection  of  names,  many  of  which  he  had 
forgotten  ;  he  did  not  remember  the  names  of  Cresap,  or  Clarke, 
or  Sappington,  or  Conolly,  or  Lord  Dunmore,  although  he  had 
lei  the  river  as  far  as  Grave  Creek  when  that  nobleman  led 
the  expedition  to  the  Scioto  in  1774. 

The  writer,  after  stating  the  object  of  his  visit,  asked  Myers 
how  old  he  was;  he  replied  102  years.  His  wife,  who  is  an  active 
woman,  interposed,  and  said  his  age  was  ninety-seven  ;  and  Mr. 
Sloan  remarked  that,  from  data  furnished  him  many  years  ago  by 
Mi-.  Myers,  he  had  supposed  that  he  must  be  about  the  age  his 
wife  made  him.  This  conclusion  is  rather  corroborated  by  a  sub- 
sequent remark  of  Myers,  that  he  was  a  man  grown  when  the 
aifair  at  Yellow  Creek  happened. 

His  account  of  that  affair  was  as  follows: — 

In  the  month  of  May,  1774,  he  went  across  the  Ohio,  near 
Yellow  Creek,  in  company  with  two  other  men,  to  look  at  the 
country.  They  went  up  the  creek  two  or  three  miles  to  a  spring, 
at  a  place  now  known  as  the  Hollow  l'ock,  where  they  concluded 
to  encamp  that  night.     Having  spancclled  their  horse,  they  turned 


185 

Both  parties  being  now  fully  exasperated,  the  work 
of  retaliation  began  on  all  sides,  and  continued,  with 

him  loose  around  the  point  of  the  hill,  where  there  was  good  graz- 
ing, and  began  kindling  a  fire.  Soon  after  they  heard  their  horse's  « 
bell  tinkling,  as  though  he  was  moving  rapidly.  Myers  then  sus- 
pected that  a  wolf  had  scared  the  horse,  and,  taking  up  his  rifle, 
he  ran  round  the  point  of  the  hill  until  he  saw  the  horse  standing 
still,  and  an  Indian  stooping  down  beside  him,  trying  to  loosen  the 
spancels.  Myers  immediately  raised  his  gun  and  shot  the  Indian, 
and  as  soon  as  he  had  loaded  again  he  ran  up  the  side  of  the  hill 
until  he  discovered  a  large  number  of  Indians  encamped,  and  one 
with  a  gun  running  towards  him,  but  looking  towards  the  horse ; 
he  immediately  fired  at  the  second  Indian,  and,  without  knowing 
whether  he  had  killed  him  or  not,  he  (Myers)  wheeled  about  and 
ran  towards  the  spring  and  camp,  when  he  found  that  the  other 
man  had  become  alarmed  and  left  before  him. 

Next  morning  several  Indians  came  over  to  Baker's  station  to 
inquire  who  had  killed  the  two  Indians  the  evening  before,  but 
Great  House,  who  appears  to  have  been  the  master  spirit,  ordered 
the  men  not  to  tell,  and  the  Indians  returned  to  their  encamp- 
ment. 

That  afternoon,  or  the  next  morning,  a  large  canoe  full  of  In- 
dians was  discovered  crossing  the  river;  the  white  men  immedi- 
ately seized  their  rifles,  and  ran  down  to  a  point,  where  the  canoe 
would  be  likely  to  land,  and,  lying  concealed  until  it  cnine  quite 
close,  fired  and  killed  every  person  in  the  canoe  but  one. 

Here  the  writer  inquired  whether  there  were  any  women 
killed. 

Answer — "  I  can  not  tell,  they  were  altogether  in  the  canoe." 

Such  is  Myers'  narrative,  and  I  have  thought  it  worth  pre- 
servation; of  its  truth  every  one  can  judge  for  himself.  Mr. 
Sloan  has  known  Myers  for  about  twenty  yeai*s,  and  has  heard  his 
statement  again  and  again,  without  variation,  and  his  version  of 
Myers'  narrative  agrees  precisely  with  that  of  Myers  himself  to 
the  write?. 

Myers  is  well  known  as  a  veteran  Indian  fighter ;  his  story  was 
told  without  the  least  shadow  of  braggadocio,  and  certainly  with- 
out any  appearance  of  an  effort  to  exonerate  himself  from  a  charge 
of  criminality. 

He  spoke  of  killing  the  Indians  with  quite  as  much  indiffer- 
ence as  an  experienced  hunter  would  of  killing  a  bear. 

This  narrative,  if  it  be  relied  upon,  certainly  palliates,  in  some 
degree,  the  atrocity  of  the  outrage  at  Yellow  Creek.  It  refutes 
the  charge  of  inviting  the  Indians  over,  making  them  drunk,  and 
then  murdering  them.     It  negatives  the  charge  of  treachery  and 


136  FUGITIVE  ESSAYS. 

remarkable  cruelty,  during  the  summer  and  fall.* 
In  August  Lord  Dunmore  collected  a  force  of  3,000 
men,  destined  for  the  reduction  of  their  towns  on  the 
Scioto,  situated  within  the  present  limits  of  Pickaway 
county.  One  half  of  the  corps  was  raised  in  Bote- 
tourt, Fincastle,  and  the  adjoining  counties,  by  Col. 
Andrew  Lewis,  and  of  these  1,100  were  in  rendez- 
vous at  the  levels  of  Green  Brier  on  the  5th  of  Sep- 
tember. It  advanced  in  two  divisions :  the  left  wing, 
commanded  by  Lewis,  struck  the  great  Kenhawa,  and 
followed  that  stream  to  the  Ohio ;  f  the  right  wing, 
attended  by  Dunmore  in  person,  passed  the  mountains 
at  the  Potomac  Gap,  and  came  to  the  Ohio  somewhere 
above  Wheeling.  About  the  6th  of  October,  a  talk 
was  had  with  the  chiefs  of  the  Six  Nations  and  the 
Delawares,  some  of  whom  had  been  to  the  Shawanese 


infamous  violation  of  the  rights  of  hospitality  ;  but  still  leaves  a 
case  of  unprovoked  murder.  C. 

*  Message  of  John  Penn,  Governor  of  Pennsylvania,  to  the 
Assembly,  July  18,  1774,  American  Archives,  4th  Series,  Vol.  I, 
p.  602: — "I  am  to  inform  you  that  in  the  latter  end  of  April 
last,  about  eleven  Delaware  and  Shawanese  Indians  were  barbar- 
ously murdered  on  the  river  Ohio,  about  ninety  miles  below  Pitts- 
burg, by  two  parties  of  white  men,  said  to  be  Virginians.  As 
soon  as  the  unfortunate  affair  was  known  on  the  frontiers  of  the 
province,  messengers  were  dispatched  to  assure  the  Indians  that 
these  outrages  had  been  committed  by  wicked  people,  without  the 
knowledge  of  any  of  the  English  governments,  and  requesting 
that  they  might  not  be  the  means  of  disturbing  the  friendship  ex- 
isting between  us.  This  step  had  so  far  a  good  effect  as  to  quiet 
them  for  the  present,  and  to  prevent  them  from  coming  to  a  reso- 
lution to  enter  into  a  general  war  with  us.  It  did  not,  however, 
restrain  the  particular  friends  and  relations  of  the  deceased,  who, 
it  seems,  contrary  to  the  advice  of  their  chiefs,  in  a  short  time 
afterwards  took  their  revenge  by  murdering  a  number  of  Virgin- 
ians, settled  to  the  westward  of  the  Monongahela." 

See  also  letter  of  Wm.  Preston,  of  Fincastle,  page  707,  dated 
Aug.  18,  1774,  detailing  the  Indian  murders  in  his  vicinity. 

f  Letter  of  an  officer  from  Fort  Augusta,  dated  Nov.  21,  1774. 
American  Archives,  Vol.  I,  p.  1017. 


LORD   DUNMORE'S   EXPEDITION.  137 

towns  on  a  mission  of  peace.  They  reported  un- 
favorably/* The  plan  of  the  campaign  was  to  form 
a  junction  before  reaching  the  Indian  villages,  and 
Lewis  accordingly  halted  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ken- 

*  On  the  14th  day  of  October,  1774,  an  express  arrived  at 
Williamsburg,  Va.,  with  a  talk  between  Dunmore  and  chiefs  of  the 
Six  Nations  and  Delawares,  and  also  with  some  of  the  Mohawks, 
the  time  and  place  not  named ;  probably  at  Pittsburg  or  its  vi- 
cinity. 

Part  of  Lord  Dunmore's  reply  to  the  Delaware  and  Six  Nations' 
Chiefs. — "  Brethren:  I  am  much  obliged  to  you  for  the  pains  you 
have  taken  to  heal  the  sores  made  by  the  Shawanese.  I  would 
have  been  very  glad  to  have  -now  given  you  a  more  favorable  an- 
swer as  to  them  ;  but  you  yourselves  must  be  well  acquainted  how 
little  the  Shawanese  deserve  the  treatment  or  appellation  of 
brothers  from  me,  when  in  the  first  place  they  have  not  complied 
with  the  terms  prescribed  to  them  by  Colonel  Bouqet  (and  to 
which  they  assented),  of  giving  up  the  white  prisoners;  nor  have 
they  ever  truly  buried  the  hatchet,  for  the  next  summer  after  that 
treaty  they  killed  a  man  upon  the  frontiers  of  my  government. 
The  next  year  they  killed  eight  of  my  people  upon  Cumberland 
River,  and  brought  their  horses  to  their  towns,  where  they  dis- 
posed of  them  (together  with  a  considerable  quantity  of  peltry) 
to  the  traders  from  Pennsylvania.  Some  time  after,  one  Martin, 
a  trader  from  my  country,  was  killed,  with  two  men,  on  the  Hock- 
hocking  by  the  Shawanese,  only  because  they  were  Virginians,  at 
the  same  time  permitting  one  Ellis  to  pass,  only  as  he  was  a  Penn- 
sylvanian.  In  the  year  1771  twenty  of  my  people  were  robbed  by 
them,  when  they  carried  away  nineteen  horses,  and  as  many 
owned  by  Indians,  with  their  guns,  clothes,  etc.,  which  they  deli- 
vered up  to  one  Callender  and  Sprague,  and  other  Pennsylvania 
traders,  in  their  towns.  In  the  same  year,  on  the  Great  Kenhawa, 
in  my  government,  they  killed  ***,  one  of  my  people,  and  wound- 
ed his  brother  ;  and  the  year  following,  Adam  Strand,  another 
of  my  people,  his  wife,  and  seven  children,  were  most  cruelly  mur- 
dered on  Elk  waters.  In  the  next  year  they  killed  Richards,  an- 
other of  my  people,  on  the  Kenhawa.  A  few  moons  after  they 
killed  Russel,  one  of  my  people,  and  five  white  men  and  two  ne- 
groes, near  Cumberland  Gap,  and  also  carried  their  horses  and  effects 
into  their  towns,  where  they  were  purchased  by  the  Pennsylvania 
traders.  All  these,  with  many  other  murders,  they  have  commit- 
ted upon  my  people  before  a  drop  of  Shawanese  blood  was  spilt 
by  them,  and  have  perpetrated  robberies  upon  my  defenceless 
frontier  inhabitants,  which,  at  length,  irritated  them  so  far  that 

12* 


FUGITIVE  ESSAYS. 


hawa,  on  the  6th  of  October,  for  communication  and 
orders  from  the  Commander-in-chief.  Whjle  there 
he  encamped  on  the  ground  now  occupied  by  the 
village  of  Point  Pleasant,  without  intrenchments  or 

tbey  began  to  retaliate.  I  have  now  stated  the  dispute  between 
them,  and  leave  it  to  you  to  judge  what  they  want." 

Captain  Pike,  who  had  been  on  a  mission  to  the  Shawanese, 
said: — "At  my  arrival  at  the  lower  towns  I  was  told  by  Cornst.-ilk 
that  he  was  much  rejoiced  to  hear  from  his  brother?,  the  white 
people,  in  the  spring,  upon  the  first  disturbances  ;  that  he  had  in 
consequence  ordered  all  his  young  people  to  remain  quiet,  and  not 
to  molest  the  traders,  but  to  convey  them  safe  to  their  grand- 
fathers, the  Dclawares,  where  they  would  be  safe.  The  Shawa- 
nese chiefs  declared  they  were  well  pleased  to  hear  from  their 
brothers,  the  English,  and  that  they  had  spoken  to  all  their  young 
people  to  remain  quiet.  Upon  my  arriving  at  the  Standing  Stone 
(now  Lancaster,  Ohio),  I  sent  word  to  the  Shawanese  to  assemble 
their  counsellors ;  but  as  they  were  out  hunting  it  could  not  be 
immediately  effected.  The  principal  warriors  listened  to  the 
chiefs,  and  had  no  hostile  intentions.  The  mischief  which  had 
been  done  was  perpetrated  by  the  foolish  young  people  ;  but  that 
now,  as  soon  as  they  were  assembled,  they  would  be  able  to  pre- 
vent any  thing  of  that  nature  for  the  future." 

The  Shawanese  said  : — "  That  a  party  of  Twightwees  and  of 
Tawas,  and  a  party  of  Wyandots,  were  as  far  advanced  on  their 
way  to  war  against  the  white  people,  as  their  towns,  but  that  they 
had  advised  them  to  return  ;  that  they  expected  that  the  war 
which  threatened  them  would  be  extinguished,  as  they  now  desired 
peace." 

The  Mohegans  delivered  the  following  speech  to  the  Shawa- 
nese:— "Brethren:  Formerly  you  came  to  us  on  the  other  side 
of  the  mountains,  and  told  us  we  were  your  elder  brothers,  desir- 
ing us  to  come  over  and  show  ourselves  to  your  grandfathers,  the 
Delawares,  that  they  might  know  our  relationship.  We  did  so, 
and  our  people  held  fast  the  same  chain  of  friendship  ;  but  now 
we  see  you  only  holding  with  one  hand,  while  you  keep  a  toma- 
hawk in  the  other.  We  desire  you,  therefore,  to  sit  down,  and 
not  be  so  haughty,  but  pity  jour  women  and  children.  We  there- 
fore take  the  tomahawk  out  of  your  hands,  and  put  it  into  the 
hands  of  your  grandfathers,  the  l)elawares  ;  they  are  good  judges, 
and  know  how  to  dispose  of  it." 

The  Shawanese  replied: — "Brethren:  We  are  glad  to  hear 
what  you  have  said,  and  that  you  have  taken  the  tomahawk  out 
of  our  hands,  and  given  it  to  our  grandfathers,  the  Dclawares. 


LORD   DUNMORE's   EXPEDITION.  139 

other  defences.  On  the  morning  of  the  10th  of  Oc- 
tober he  was  attacked  by  one  thousand  chosen  war- 
riors of  the  western  confederacy,  who  had  abandoned 
their  towns  on  the  Pickaway  plains  to  meet  the 
Virginia  troops,  and  give  them  battle  before  the  two 
corps  could  be  united.  The  Virginia  riflemen  occu- 
pied a  triangular  point  of  land,  between  the  right 
bank  of  the  Kenhawa  and  the  left  bank  of  the  Ohio, 
accessible  only  from  the  rear.     The  assault  was  there- 

But,  for  our  part,  we  are  not  sensible  that  we  have  had  the  toma- 
hawk in  our  hands.  It  is  true  some  foolish  young  people  may 
have  found  one  out  of  our  sight  hid  in  the  grass,  and  may  have 
made  use  of  it.  But  that  tomahawk  which  we  formerly  held  has 
been  long  since  buried,  and  we  have  not  since  raised  it.  I  heard 
some  of  the  young  people  express  a  threat  at  the  Delawares  for 
interfering  so  much  with  their  quarrel  with  the  white  people; 
that  if  they  had  any  thing  to  say  they  wondered  why  the  white 
people  did  not  come  themselves  to  speak." 

Cnptain  White  Eyes,  in  behalf  of  the  Delawares,  to  Lord 
Dunmore: — "Brother:  As  your  brothers,  the  Shawanese,  are  de- 
sirous to  speak  to  you  by  themselves,  I  hope  you  will  listen  to 
them.  I  will  desire  them  to  speak  to  you,  and  would  be  glad  to 
acquaint  them  when  they  could  see  you  to  enter  into  a  confer- 
ence." 

The  Big  Appletree,  a  Mohawk,  said: — "This  day  it  hath 
pleased  God  that  we  should  meet  together  who  are  sent  on  behalf 
of  another  nation.  The  Shawanese  told  me  that  they  heard  there 
was  something  yet  good  in  the  heart  of  the  Big  Knife.  They  de- 
sired me  to  take  their  hearts  in  my  hands,  and  speak  strongly 
in  their  behalf  to  the  Big  Knife.  I  am  glad  the  Shawanese,  my 
younger  brother,  have  desired  me  to  undertake  this  business,  and 
am  equally  rejoiced  at  the  appearance  thereof  from  your  good 
speeches." 

His  address  in  answer  to  the  reply: — "Brothers:  I  have  al- 
ready informed  you  of  the  evil  disposition  of  the  Shawanese 
towards  us ;  but  to  convince  you  how  ready  the  Big  Knife  is  to  do 
justice  at  all  times,  even  to  their  greatest  enemies,  at  the  request 
of  my  brothers  the  Six  Nations,  and  you  the  Delawares,  I  will  be 
ready  and  willing  to  hear  any  good  speeches  which  the  Shawa- 
nese may  have  to  deliver  to  me,  either  at  Wheeling,  where  I  now 
propose  to  be,  or,  if  they  would  not  meet  me  there,  at  the  Little 
Kenhawa,  or  somewhere  lower  down  the  river." — American  Ar- 
chives, 4th  Series,  Vol.  I,  pp.  873 — 876. 


140  FUGITIVE     ESSAYS. 

fore  in  this  quarter.  Within  an  hour  after  the  scouts 
had  reported  the  presence  of  the  Indians,  a  general 
engagement  took  place,  extending  from  one  bank  of 
one  river  to  the  other,  half  a  mile  from  the  point. 

Colonel  Andrew  Lewis,  who  seems  to  have  been 
possessed  of  military  talent,  acted  with  steadiness 
and  decision  in  this  emergency.  He  arranged  his  for- 
ces promptly,  and  advanced  to  meet  the  enemy  in 
force  equal  to  his  own.  Colonel  Charles  Lewis,  with 
300  men,  forming  the  right  of  the  line,  met  the  In- 
dians at  sunrise,  and  sustained  the  first  attack.  Here 
he  was  mortally  wounded  in  the  onset,  and  his 
troops,  receiving  almost  the  entire  weight  of  the 
charge,  were  broken  and  gave  way.  Colonel  Fleming, 
with  a  portion  of  the  command,  had  advanced  along 
the  shore  of  the  Ohio,  and  in  a  few  moments  fell  in 
with  the  right  of  the  Indian  line,  which  rested  on  the 
river. 

The  effect  of  the  first  shock  was  to  stagger  the 
left  wing  as  it  had  done  the  right,  and  its  commander 
also  was  severely  wounded  at  an  early  stage  of  the 
conflict,  but  his  men  succeeded  in  reaching  a  piece  of 
timber  land,  and  maintained  their  position  until  the 
reserve,  under  Colonel  Field,  reached  the  ground.  It 
will  be  seen,  by  examining  Lewis'  plan  of  the  engage- 
ment, and  the  ground  on  which  it  was  fought,  that  an 
advance  on  his  part  and  a  retreat  of  his  opponent 
necessarily  weakened  their  line,  by  constantly  increas- 
ing its  length,  if  it  extended  from  river  to  river,  and 
would  eventually  force  him  to  break  it  or  leave  his 
flanks  unprotected.  Those  acquainted  with  Indian 
tactics  inform  us  that  it  is  the  great  point  of  his 
generalship  to  preserve  his  flanks  and  overreach  those 
of  his  enemy.  They  continued,  therefore,  contrary 
to  their  usual  practice,  to  dispute  the  ground  with  the 
pertinacity  of  veterans  along  the  whole  line,  retreat- 


LORD  DUNMORE's  EXPEDITION.  141 

ing  slowly  from  tree  to  tree  till  one  o'clock,  P.  M., 
when  they  reached  a  strong  position.  Here  both 
parties  rested,  within  rifle  range  of  each  other,  and 
continued  a  desultory  fire  along  a  front  of  a  mile  and 
a  quarter  until  after  sunset. 

The  desperate  nature  of  this  fight  may  be  inferred 
from  the  deep-seated  animosity  of  both  parties  to- 
wards each  other,  the  high  courage  which  both  pos- 
sessed, and  the  consequences  which  hung  upon  the 
issue.  The  Virginians  lost  one-half  their  commis- 
sioned officers,  and  fifty-two  men  killed.  Of  the 
Indians  twenty-one  were  left  on  the  field,  and  the  loss 
in  killed  and  wounded  is  stated  at  233.*  During  the 
night  the  Indians  retreated,  and  were  not  pursued. 

Having  failed  in  this  contest  with  the  troops, 
while  they  were  still  divided  in  two  parties,  they 
changed  their  plan,  and  determined  at  once  to  save 
their  towns  from  destruction  by  offers  of  peace. 

Soon  after  the  battle  was  over,  a  reinforcement  of 
300  Fincastle  troops,  and  also  an  express  from  Lord 
Dunmore,  arrived,  with  an  order  directing  this  divi- 
sion to  advance  towards  the  Shawanese  villages  with- 
out delay.  Notwithstanding  the  order  was  given  in 
ignorance  of  the  engagement,  and  commanded  them 
to  enter  the  enemy's  country  unsupported,  Colonel 
Lewis  and  his  men  were  glad  to  comply  with  it,  and 
thus  complete  the  overthrow  of  the  allied  Indians. 

The  Virginians,  made  eager  with  success,  and 
maddened  by  the  loss  of  so  many  brave  officers, 
dashed  across  the  Ohio  in  pursuit  of  more  victims, 
leaving  a  garrison  at  Point  Pleasant.  Our  next 
information  of  them  is,  that  a  march  of  eighty  miles, 
through  an  untrodden  wilderness,  has  been  performed, 


*   Burke's  History  of  Virginia,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  392—8.       Ameri- 
can Archives,  Vol.  1,  pp.  1015 — 1018,  Letters  of  the  Day. 


142  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

and  on  the  24th  of  October  they  are  encamped  on 
the  banks  of  Congo  Creek  (in  Pickaway  township, 
^  Pickaway  county),  within  striking  distance  of  the 
Indian  towns.  Their  principal  village  was  occupied 
by  Shawanese,  and  stood  upon  the  ground  where  the 
village  of  Westfall  is  now  situated,  on  the  west  bank 
of  the  Scioto,  and  on  the  Ohio  canal,  near  the  south 
line  of  the  same  county.  This  was  the  head-quarters 
of  the  confederate  tribes.  In  the  mean  time  Lord 
Dunmore  and  his  men  had  descended  the  Ohio  t<>  the 
mouth  of  the  Great  Hockhocking,  established  a  dep6t, 
and  erected  some  defences  called  Fort  Gower.  From 
this  point  he  probably  started  the  express  directed  to 
Lewis  at  the  mouth  of  Kcnhawa,  about  fifty  miles 
below,  and  immediately  commenced  his  march  up  the 
Hockhocking  into  the  Indian  country ;  for  the  next 
that  is  known  of  him  he  is  in  the  vicinity  of  Camp 
Charlotte,  on  the  left  bank  of  Sippo  Creek,  about 
seven  miles  south-east  of  Circleville,  where  he  arrived 
before  Lewis  reached  the  station  on  Congo,  as  above 
stated.  Camp  Charlotte  was  situated  about  four  and 
one  half  miles  north-east  of  Camp  Lewis,  on  the 
farm  now  owned  by  Thomas  J.  Winship,  Esq.,  and 
was  consequently  farther  from  the  villages  than  the 
position  occupied  by  the  left  wing.  There  has  been 
much  diversity  of  opinion  and  statement  respecting 
the  location  of  the  town,  and  also  in  regard  to  the 
positions  of  Camp  Charlotte  and  Camp  Lewis.  The 
associations  connected  with  these  places  have  given 
them  an  interest  which  will  never  decline.  This  is 
probably  a  sufficient  excuse  for  presenting  here  in 
detail  the  evidence  upon  which  the  positions  of  these 
several  points  are  established. 

It  was  at  the  town  that  Logan  delivered  his 
famous  speech.  It  was  not  made  in  council,  for  he 
refused  to  attend  at  Camp  Charlotte,  where  the  talk 


LORD   DUNMORE?S    EXPEDITION.  143 

was  held,  and  Dunmore  sent  a  trader,  by  the  name 
of  John  Gibson,  to  inquire  the  cause  of  his  absence. 
The  Indians,  as  before  intimated,  had  made  propo- 
sitions to  the  Governor  for  peace,  and  probably  before 
he  was  aware  of  the  result  of  the  action  at  Kenhawa. 
When  Gibson  arrived  at  the  village,  Logan  came  to 
him,  and  by  his  (Logan's)  request,  they  went  into  an 
adjoining  wood,  and  sat  down,  Here,  after  shedding 
abundance  of  tears,  the  honored  chief  told  his  pathetic 
story.*  Gibson  repeated  it  to  the  officers,  who  caused 
it  to  be  published  in  the  Virginia  Gazette  of  that 
year.  Mr.  Jefferson  was  charged  with  making  im- 
provements and  alterations  when  he  published  it  in 
his  Notes  on  Virginia  ;  but  from  the  concurrent  testi- 
mony of  Gibson,  Lord  Dunmore,  and  several  others, 
it  appears  to  be  as  close  a  representation  of  the  ori- 
ginal as  could  be  obtained  under  tbe  circumstances. 
The  only  versions  of  the  speech  that  I  have  seen  are 
here  contrasted  in  order  to  show  that  the  substance 
and  sentiments  correspond,  and  that  it  must  be  the 
production  of  Logan  or  of  John  Gibson,  the  only  white 
man  who  heard  the  original. 


WlLLiAMSBtmon,  Va„  New  York,  Feb.  16. 1775. 

Feb.  4,  1775. 

Extract  of  a  letter  from  Vir- 

The  following  is  said  to  be  a  ginia :  — 
message  from  Captain  Logan,  an 

Indian  warrior,  to  Gov.  Dun-  "  I  make  no  doubt  the  follow- 
more,  after  the  battle  in  which  ing  specimen  of  Indian  eloquence 
Colonel  Charles  Lewis  was  slain,  and  mistaken  valor  will  please 
delivered  at  the  treaty: —  you,  but  you  must  make  allow- 
ances for  the  unskilfulness  of 
"I  appeal  to  any  white  man  the  interpreter : — 
to  say  that  he  ever  entered  Lo- 
gan's cabin  but  I  gave  him  meat,  "  '  I  appeal  to  any  white  man 
that  he  ever  came  naked  but  I  to  say  if  ever  he  entered  Lo- 
clothcd  him.  gan's  cabin  hungry  and  1   gave 

*  Affidavit  of  John  Gibson,  Jefferson's  Notes.  Appendix,  p.  16. 


144 


FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 


"In  the  course  of  the  last 
war  Logan  remaiiied  in  his  cabin 
an  advocate  for  peace.  I  had 
such  an  affection  for  the  white 
people,  that  I  was  pointed  at  by 
the  rest  of  my  nation.  I  should 
have  ever  lived  with  them  had 
it  not  been  for  Colonel  Cresap, 
who  last  year  cut  off,  in  cold 
)  lood,  all  the  relations  of  Lo- 
j  an,  not  sparing  my  women  and 
children.  There  runs  not  a  drop 
of  my  blood  in  the  veins  of  any 
human  creature.  This  called 
upon  me  for  revenge.  I  have 
sought  it.  1  have  killed  many, 
and  fully  glutted  my  revenge.  I 
am  glad  there  is  a  prospect  of 
peace  on  account  of  the  nation ; 
but  I  beg  you  will  not  entertain 
a  thought  that  any  thing  I  have 
said  proceeds  from  fear.  Logan 
disdains  the  thought.  He  will 
not  turn  on  his  heel  to  save  his 
life.  Who  is  there  to  mourn  for 
Logan?     Not  one." 


him  not  meat ;  if  ever  he  came 
cold  or  naked  and  I  gave  him 
not  clothing. 

"'During  the  course  of  the 
last  long  and  bloody  war  Logan 
remained  in  his  tent  an  advocate 
for  peace.  Nay,  such  was  my 
love  for  the  whites,  that  those 
of  my  own  country  pointed  at 
me  as  they  passed  by,  and  said, 
— 'Logan  is  the  friend  of  white 
man.'  I  had  even  thought  to 
live  with  you  but  for  the  injuries 
of  one  man.  Colonel  Cresap  the 
last  spring,  in  cool  blood  and 
unprovoked,  cut  off  all  the  rela- 
tives of  Logan,  not  sparing  even 
my  women  and  children.  There 
runs  not  a  drop  of  my  blood  in 
the  veins  of  any  human  crea- 
ture. This  called  on  me  for 
revenge.  I  have  sought  it  I 
have  killed  many.  I  have  fully 
glutted  my  vengeance.  For  my 
country  I  rejoice  at  the  beams 
of  peace  ;  yet  do  not  harbor  the 
thought  that  mine  is  the  joy  of 
fear.  Logan  never  felt  mr. 
He  will  not  turn  on  his  heel  to 
save  his  life.  Who  is  there  to 
mourn  for  Logan?     Not  one.'" 


The  right  hand  translation  is  literally  the  same 
as  the  copy  given  in  Jefferson's  Notes,  page  124,  and 
is  doubtless  the  version  given  out  by  himself  at  the 
time.  The  authenticity  of  the  ideas,  and,  if  not  the 
words,  at  all  events  the  style,  is  in  some  degree  sus- 
tained by  another  piece  of  Logan's  composition,  which 
was  found  tied  to  a  war-club  at  the  house  of  one 
Robertson,  in  Fincastle  county,  Va.,  after  a  massacre 
of  his  family  by  the  Indians.  Logan  had  previously 
caused  it  to  be  written  with  a  burnt  stick,  by  a 
prisoner  named  William  Robinson,  saying  he  would 
kill  somebody,  and  leave  the  letter  in  the  house. 


LORD   DUNMORE'S   EXPEDITION.  145 

"  Captain  Cresap,  what  did  you  kill  my  people  on  Yellow 
Creek  for  ?  The  white  people  killed  my  kin  at  Conestoga  a  great 
while  ago,  and  I  thought  nothing  of  that ;  but  you  killed  my  kin 
again  at  Yellow  Creek,  and  took  my  cousin  prisoner.  I  thought 
I  must  kill  too.  I  have  been  three  times  to  war  since ;  but  the 
Indians  are  not  angry,  only  myself. 

"July  21,  1774.  Capt.  John  Logan." 


I  have  shown  elsewhere  that  Logan  was  mistaken 
as  to  the  connection  of  Cresap  with  the  murders  at 
Baker's. 

It  was  repeated  throughout  the  North  American 
colonies  as  a  lesson  of  eloquence  in  the  schools,  and 
copied  upon  the  pages  of  literary  journals  in  Great 
Britain  and  the  Continent.  This  brief  effusion  of 
mingled  pride,  courage,  and  sorrow,  elevated  the 
character  of  the  native  American  throughout  the 
intelligent  world,  and  the  place  where  it  was  delivered 
can  never  be  forgotten  so  long  as  touching  eloquence 
is  admired  by  men. 

Camp  Charlotte  was  situated  on  the  south-west 
quarter  of  section  12,  town  10,  range  21,  upon  a 
pleasant  piece  of  ground,  in  view  of  the  Pickaway 
plains.  It  was  without  permanent  defences,  or  at 
least  there  are  no  remains  of  intrenchments,  and  is 
accessible  on  all  sides.  The  creek  in  front  formed  no 
impediment  to  an  approach  from  that  quarter,  and 
the  country  is  level  in  the  rear.  Camp  Lewis  is  said 
to  be  upon  more  defensible  ground  on  the  north-east 
quarter  of  section  30,  same  township  and  range.  The 
two  encampments  have  often  been  confounded  with 
each  other. 

The  testimony  which  I  shall  here  introduce  was 
developed  in  the  year  1330,  in  a  case  in  the  Supreme 
Court  of  Ohio  for  Pickaway  county,  where  questions 
relating  to  the  position  of  Camp  Charlotte  and  the 
Chillicothe  towns  were  involved.  It  was  furnished 
13 


?4()  FUGITIVE   ESKAV- 

me  by  J.  D.  Calwell,  Esq.,  of  Chill icothe,  counsel  for 
defendants,  in  the  suit  of  John  Gibson's  heirs  vs. 
Duncan  Mc Arthur,  and  others.  It  consists  of  depo- 
sitions taken  upon  the  ground  at  Camp  Charlotte,  for 
the  purpose  of  sustaining  the  description  of  a  Virginia 
military  warrant,  which  reads  thus:  —  "August  2d, 
17  ST — Entry  No.  450.  John  Jolliff's  (heir)  enters 
3,666J  acres;  a  military  -warrant  No.  825,  on  the 
Sciota  river,  at  the  first  fork  above  the  old  Chillicothe 
town,  which  town  is  about  seven  miles  from  a  place 
called  Camp  Charlotte,"  etc. 

Caleb  Evans  deposes  and  says  that  he  was  here  thirty-two 
years  ago,  and  noticed  these  stumps,  and  old  John  Hargus  told 
me  it  was  Camp  Charlotte.  Hargus  said  he  was  a  captain  of 
iii's  with  Dunmore,  and  when  they  came  here  the  Indians  crowd- 
ed them  so  that  Dunmore  and  six  or  seven  others,  myself  included, 
went  across  to  meet  Lewis,  who  was  encamped  on  Congo  (Greek) 
on  some  knolls  where  Judge  Barr  now  lives.  We  met  Lewis  just 
after  he  had  left  his  camp  to  give  battle  to  the  Indians,  and  or- 
dered him  back.  I  was  here  when  there  were  no  marks  of  an  axe 
in  these  parts  except  at  these  two  camps.  Hargus  and  myself 
were  the  only  persons  then  in  this  vicinity.  The  cattle  of  the 
army  were  kept  on  a  prairie  across  the  creek. 

Thomas  Barr. — Deponent  was  here  thirty-two  years  ago.  I 
went  back  to  Pennsylvania  and  saw  Colonel  Williamson,  who  was 
with  Dunmore.  We  differed  about  the  appearance  of  Camp  Char- 
lotte, and  after  I  saw  this  place  the  next  season,  and  I  went  bac x 
again,  we  agreed  in  every  particular.  There  was  a  spring  and  five 
or  six  trees  deadened  by  him  in  a  drain.  Lewis'  camp  is  about  five 
miles  west  of  this,  on  Congo.  One  Boggs  came  through  the  coun- 
try about  that  time,  who  was  at  the  camp,  and  said  this  is  the  spot 
Boggs  told  about  Dunmore  overtaking  Lewis,  and  ordering  him  to 
stop,  and  not  attack  the  Indian  towns.  I  saw  Mr.  Mclntvre,  of 
Zanesville,  soon  after  that  place  was  settled.  Mr.  Mclntyre  and 
Mr.  Zane  were  to  lay  out  a  road  from  Wheeling  through  Zanes- 
ville, Standing  Stone  (now  Lancaster),  Chillicothe  (meaning  the 
settlement  in  Ross  county),  to  Limestone  (now  Maysville).  1  bey 
took  an  Indian  Pilot  to  lead  them  to  Chillicothe.  Be  led  them  to 
the  place  now  called  Westfall,  and  said  that  was  Chillicothe,  the 
the  only  Chillicothe  he  knew  of.  This  was  about  twenty-nine 
years  ago. 

George  Wolf. — I  live  near  Camp  Lewis,  and  came  here  thirty- 


LORD   DUNMORE'S   EXPEDITION.  147 

three  years  ago.     I  heard  John  Hargus  and  John  Boggs  talk  about 
this  place,  and  call  it  Camp  Charlotte. 

James  Moore. — I  came  to  Chillicothe  (in  Ross  county)  in  179G. 
In  1797  or  1798  I  went  upon  the  ground  where  Westfall  now  is.  I 
moved  there  in  1799,  and  it  appeared  to  have  been  an  Indian  town. 
The  Indians  who  were  about  there  said  the  inhabitants  called 
themselves  Chillicothe^,  and  their  town  Chillicothe^.  They  had  a 
town  on  the  north  fork  of  Paint  Creek  of  the  same  name,  and  an- 
other on  Mad  River.  They  called  this  at  Westfall  Old  Chillicothee. 
These  Indians  were  Shawanese,  Delawares,  and  Wyandots,  and  said 
the  reason  the  Chillicothees  left  was  the  prevalence  of  the  small 
pox.  Describing  the  disease,  the  Indians  said  the  people  die — die 
— die — some  day  one,  some  day  two  ;  and  they  bury — bury — bury, 
and  pointed  out  the  graves. 

Fergus  Moore  testified  to  same  as  James  Moore,  and 
added  that  in  digging  the  Ohio  canal  bones  were 
found  in  great  numbers  at  the  places  shown  to  them 
as  graves. 

This  evidence  will  probably  be  considered  as  con- 
clusive in  relation  to  the  position  of  Old  Chillicothe 
and  the  two  camps. 

Before  Lord  Dunmore  reached  the  vicinity  of  the 
Indian  towns  he  was  met  by  a  flag  of  truce,  borne  by 
a  white  man  named  Elliot,  desiring  a  halt  on  the  part 
of  the  troops,  and  requesting  for  the  chiefs  an  inter- 
preter with  whom  they  could  communicate.*  To  this 
his  Lordship,  who,  according  to  the  Virginians,  had 
an  aversion  to  fighting,  readily  assented.  They  fur- 
thermore charged  him  with  the  design  of  forming  an 
alliance  with  the  confederacy  to  assist  Great  Britain 
against  the  colonies  in  the  crisis  of  the  revolution, 
which  every  one  foresaw.  He,  however,  moved  for- 
ward to  Camp  Charlotte,  which  was  established  rather 
as  a  convenient  council  ground  than  as  a  place  of 
security  or  defence.  The  Virginia  militia  came  here 
for  the  purpose  of  fighting,  and  their  dissatisfaction 

*  Gibson's  Affidavit. 


148  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

and  disappointment  at  the  result  amounted  almost  to 
mutiny.  Lewis  refused  to  obey  the  order  for  a  halt, 
considering  the  enemy  as  already  within  his  grasp, 
and  of  inferior  numbers  to  his  own.  Dunmore,  as 
we  have  seen,  went  in  person  to  enforce  his  orders, 
and,  it  is  said,  drew  his  sword  upon  Colonel  Lewis, 
threatening  him  with  instant  death  if  he  persisted  in 
farther  disobedience. 

The  troops  were  concentrated  at  Camp  Charlotte, 
numbering  about  2,500  men.  The  principal  chiefs 
of  the  Scioto  tribes  had  been  assembled,  and  some 
days  were  spent  in  negotiations.  A'  compact  or 
treaty  was  at  length  concluded  and  four  hostages 
put  in  possession  of  the  Governor  to  be  taken  to  Vir- 
ginia.* We  know  very  little  of  the  precise  terms  of 
this  treaty,  nor  even  of  the  tribes  who  gave  it  their 
assent.  It  is  said  the  Indians  agreed  to  make  the 
Ohio  their  boundary,  and  the  whites  stipulated  not  to 
pass  beyond  that  river. 

An  agreement  was  entered  into  for  a  talk  at  Pitts- 
burgh in  the  following  spring,  where  a  more  full  treaty 
was  to  be  made.f 

At  what  precise  time  the  British  standard  left  the 
Pickaway  plains,  we  are  not  informed,  nor  by  what 
route,  after  passing  Fort  Gower,  or  whether  in  a  body 
or  in  detachments,  the  troops  made  their  way  home 
to  the  settlements.     It  is  said  that  they  reached  Vir- 

*  The  following  extract  of  a  letter  from  Arthur  St.  Clair  to 
Governor  Penn,  dated  Ligonier,  Dec.  4,  1774,  needs  confirmation. 
It  is  but  one  of  many  instances  of  the  contradictory  statements 
which  embarrass  our  conclusions  in  reference  to  the  important 
doings  of  the  year  1774:  — 

"  The  Mingoes  that  live  on  the  Scioto  did  not  appear  to  treat, 
and  a  party  was  sent  to  destroy  their  towns,  which  was  effected, 
and  there  arc  (12)  twelve  of  them  prisoners  in  Fort  Pitt." — Amer- 
ican Archives,  Vol.  I,  p.  1018. 

f  American  Archives,  Vol.  I,  p.  12i'_ 


LORD   DUN  MORE' S    EXPEDITION.  149 

ginia  highly  dissatisfied  with  the  Governor  and  the 
treaty;  but  this  dissatisfaction  does  not  appear  to 
have  been  general. 

Dunmore  had  assumed  the  credit  of  the  battle  at 
Point  Pleasant.  The  Virginians,  who  participated  in 
that  action,  denied  that  it  was  an  event  in  which  he 
had  the  remotest  concern  ;  and  not  only  was  not 
aware  of  the  affair  till  after  it  had  occurred,  but  had 
neither  anticipated  or  desired  its  occurrence.*  The 
troops  were  not  paid,  and  they  represented  the  whole 
proceeding  as  a  method  of  forming  an  alliance  with 
the  western  confederacy,  of  which  fighting  formed  no 
part  in  his  Lordship's  plan.  His  position  was  one  of 
difficulty,  and  he  seems  to  have  been  deficient  in  the 
qualities  of  prudence,  determination,  and  self-com- 
mand, so  necessary  to  one  thus  situated.  He  is 
represented  as  a  haughty,  wayward,  and  unapproach- 
able person,  with  a  selfish,  hesitating,  and  overbear- 
ing mind. 

In  addition  to  the  scattered  items  of  this  expedi- 
tion here  given,  I  will  add  a  statement  which  comes 
very  well  authenticated,  but  seems  to  contradict  other 
well  known  facts.  It  is  in  relation  to  another  cam- 
paign to  the  Indian  country  by  Dunmore  in  the  year 
following,  or  1775.  It  was  related  to  me  by  Walter 
Curtis,  Esq.,  of  Belpre,  Washington  county,  Ohio, 
and  I  think  transmitted  by  him  in  substance  to  the 
Secretary  of  this  Society.  Mr.  Curtis  received  it 
from  General  Clark,  an  eminent  citizen  of  Missouri, 
a  brother  of  General  George  Rogers  Clark,  of  Ken- 
tucky. 

In  1831  a  steamboat  was  detained  a  few  hours 
near  the  house  of  Mr.  Curtiss,  on  the  Ohio,  a  short 
distance  above  the  mouth  of  the   Hockhocking,  and 

*  Burke's  History  of  Virginia,  Vol.  HI,  p.  406. 


150  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

General  Clark  came  ashore.  He  inquired  respecting 
the  remains  of  a  fort  or  encampment  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Hockhocking  river,  as  it  is  now  called.  He  was 
told  that  there  was  evidence  of  a  clearing  of  several 
acres  in  extent,  and  that  pieces  of  guns  and  muskets 
had  been  found  on  the  spot ;  and  also  that  a  collec- 
tion of  several  hundred  bullets  had  been  discovered  on 
the  bank  of  the  Hockhocking,  about  twenty-five  miles 
up  the  river.  General  Clark  then  stated  that  the 
ground  had  been  occupied  as  a  camp  by  Lord  Dun- 
more,  who  came  down  the  Kenhawa  with  300  men  in 
the  spring  of  1775,  with  the  expectation  of  treating 
with  the  Indians  here.  The  chiefs  not  making  their 
appearance,  the  march  was  continued  up  the  river 
twenty-five  or  thirty  miles,  where  an  express  from 
Virginia  overtook  the  party.  That  evening  a  council 
was  held,  and  lasted  till  very  late  at  night.  In  the 
morning  the  troops  were  disbanded,  and  immediately 
requested  to  enlist  in  the  British  service  for  a  stated 
period.  The  contents  of  the  dispatches  had  not  trans- 
pired when  this  proposition  was  made.  A  major  of 
militia,  by  the  name  of  McCarty,  made  an  harangue 
to  the  men  against  enlisting,  which  seems  to  have 
been  done  in  an  eloquent  and  effectual  manner.  -  He 
referred  to  the  condition  of  the  public  mind  in  the 
colonies,  and  the  probability  of  a  revolution,  which 
must  soon  arrive.  He  represented  the  suspicious  cir- 
cumstances of  the  express,  which  was  still  a  secret  to 
the  troops,  and  that  appearances  justified  the  con- 
clusion that  they  were  required  to  enlist  in  a  service 
against  their  own  countrymen,  their  own  kindred, 
their  own  homes.  The  consequence  was  that  but  few 
of  the  men  re-enlisted,  and  the  majority,  choosing 
the  orator  as  a  leader,  made  the  best  of  their  way  to 
Wheeling.  The  news  brought  out  by  the  courier 
proved  to  be  an  account  of  the  opening  combat  of  the 


LORD  DUNMORE's  EXPEDITION.  151 

Revolution  at  Lexington,  Mass.,  April  20,  1775. 
General  Clark  stated  that  himself  (or  his  brother) 
was  in  the  expedition. 

Lord  Dunmore  is  said  to  have  returned  to  Virginia 
by  way  of  the  Kenhawa  river. 

There  are  very  few  historical  details  sustained 
by  better  authority  than  the  above  relation.  Desirous 
of  reconciling  this  statement  with  history,  I  addressed 
a  letter  to  General  Clark,  requesting  an  explanation, 
but  his  death,  which  happened  soon  after,  prevented 
a  reply.  It  would  be  as  difficult  to  pronounce  it  an 
entire  error  as  to  give  it  full  belief. 

On  the  20th  of  April,  Dunmore  had  lost  all  influ- 
ence in  Virginia,  entrenched  himself  in  his  house  at 
Williamsburg,  and  removed  the  powder  from  the 
magazine  on  board  the  Fowey,  a  British  vessel  of 
war.  The  people  were  then  in  arms,  not  for  the  pur- 
pose of  organizing  war  parties  against  the  Indian 
country,  but  intending  to  assault  the  troops  and 
marines  of  England,  which  the  Governor  had  posted 
on  his  premises  to  ensure  the  safety  of,  or  to  prevent 
access  to,  his  person.  Before  the  17th  of  July  he 
had  abandoned  the  capital,  and  removed  to  the  Fowey 
with  his  family  and  papers.  There  is  no  mention  of 
more  than  one  expedition  in  the  history  of  Virginia, 
and  he  is  stated  to  have  been  there  when  the  battle 
of  Lexington  was  first  known,  and  is  accounted  for 
from  that  time  until  August  of  the  subsequent  year. 

I  leave  it  for  further  information  to  refute  or 
establish  the  truth  of  this  narrative,  and  offer  it  here 
because  no  shadow  of  evidence  respecting  the  trans- 
actions of  that  interesting  period  in  the  west  ought 
to  be  neglected.  For  the  same  reason  I  attach  the 
following  copies  of  resolutions^  etc.,  taken  from  the 
"American  Archives,"  a  most  valuable  publication, 
issued  and  issuing  at  the  expense  of  the  United  States. 


152  FUGITIVE     ESSAYS. 

In  this  publication  the  government  has  spared  no 
pains  to  obtain  correspondence  in  all  the  States,  and 
in  foreign  countries,  illustrating  our  history  prior  to 
the  close  of  the  Revolution.  The  first  extract  has 
some  relation  to  the  statement  of  General  Clark  of 
a  meeting  of  the  officers  under  Dunmore,  but  in  a 
different  year. 


**  At  a  meeting  of  the  officers  under  the  command  of  His  Ex- 
cellency Rt.  Hon.  Earl  of  Dunmore,  convened  at  Fort  Gower,  Nov. 
5,  1774,  for  the  purposes  of  considering  the  grievances  of  British 
America,  an  officer  present  addressed  the  meeting  in  the  following 
words :  — 

"  « Gentlemen:  Having  now  concluded  the  campaign,  by  the 
assistance  of  Providence,  with  honor  and  advantage  to  the  colony 
and  ourselves,  it  only  remains  that  we  should  give  our  country  the 
stronger  assurance  that  we  are  ready  at  all  times,  to  the  utmost 
of  our  power,  to  maintain  and  defend  her  just  rights  and  privi- 
leges. We  have  lived  about  three  months  in  the  woods,  without 
any  intelligence  from  Boston,  or  from  the  Delegates  at  Philadel- 
phia. It  is  possible,  from  the  groundless  reports  of  designing 
men,  that  our  countrymen  may  be  jealous  of  the  use  such  a  body 
would  make  of  arms  in  their  hands  at  this  critical  juncture.  That 
we  are  a  respectable  body  is  certain,  when  it  is  considered  that 
we  can  live  weeks  without  bread  or  salt, — that  we  can  sleep  in 
the  open  air  without  any  covering  but  that  of  the  canopy  of 
heaven, — and  that  we  can  march  and  shoot  with  any  in  the  known 
world.  Blessed  with  these  talents,  let  us  solemnly  engage  to  one 
another,  and  our  country  in  particular,  that  we  will  use  them  for 
no  purpose  but  for  the  honor  and  advantage  of  America,  and  of 
Virginia  in  particular.  It  behoves  us,  then,  for  the  satisfaction 
of  our  country,  that  we  should  give  them  our  real  sentiments  by 
way  of  resolves,  at  this  very  alarming  crisis.' 

"Whereupon  the  meeting  made  choice  of  a  committee  to  draw 
up  and  prepare  resolves  for  their  consideration,  who  immediately 
withdrew,  and  after  some  time  spent  therein,  reported  that  they 
had  agreed  to  and  prepared  the  following  resolves,  which  were 
read,  maturely  considered,  and  agreed  to  nem.  con.  by  the  meet- 
ing, and  ordered  to  be  published  in  the  Virginia  Gazette:  — 

"  '  Resolved,  That  we  will  bear  the  most  faithful  allegiance  to 
His  Majesty  King  George  the  Third,  whilst  His  Majesty  delights 
to  reign  over  a  brave  and  a  free  people;  that  we  will,  at  the  ex- 
pense of  life  and  every  thing  dear  and  valuable,  exert  ourselves 


LORD   DUN  MORE' S   EXPEDITION,  153 

in  the  support  of  the  honor  of  his  crown  and  the  dignity  of  the 
British  Empire  ;  but  as  the  love  of  liberty  and  attachment  to  the 
real  interests  and  just  rights  of  America  outweigh  every  other 
consideration,  we  resolve  that  we  will  exert  every  power  within  us 
for  the  defence  of  American  liberty,  and  for  the  support  of  her 
just  rights  and  privileges,  not  in  any  precipitous,  riotous,  or 
tumultuous  manner,  but  when  regularly  called  forth  by  the  unani- 
mous voice  of  our  -countrymen. 

"'Resolved,  That  we  entertain  the  greatest  respect  for  His 
Excellency  theRt.  Hon.  Lord  Dunmore,  who  commanded  the  expe- 
dition against  the  Shawanese,  and  who,  we  are  confident,  underwent 
the  great  fatigue  of  this  singular  campaign  from  no  other  motive 
than  the  true  interests  of  the  country.' 

"Signed,  by  order  and  in  behalf  of  the  whole  corps, 

"Benjamin  Ashby,  Clerk." 


These  resolutions  bear  date  only  ten  days  after 
the  arrival  of  Lewis  at  Camp  Charlotte.  Of  this 
time  at  least  four  days  must  have  been  occupied  in 
the  march,  which  must  have  exceeded  eighty  miles  in 
distance,  and  we  may  infer  that  the  troops  moved 
from  the  Indian  towns  about  the  1st  of  November, 
1774. 

We  are  not  able  to  determine  whether  Lord  Dun- 
more  was  present  when  these  resolutions  were  adopted. 
On  the  12th  instant  he  is  found  at  fort  Burd,  near 
Pittsburg,  sitting  in  judgment  upon  one  of  the  refrac- 
tory Pennsylvanians,  for  violating  the.  Virginia  pro- 
clamation. '  He  arrived  at  Williamsburg,  Va.,  on  the 
4th  of  December,  and  received  the  attentions  and 
congratulations  of  the  public  authorities.  (American 
Archives,  Vol.  I,  p.  1018.) 

It  is  highly  probable  that  the  army  was  disbanded 
at  Fort  Gower,  and  came  home  in  different  parties, 
and  by  such  routes  as  were  nearest  and  most  con- 
venient. The  hostages  had  not  arrived  at  Williams- 
burgh  at  the  above  date ;  in  fact  (12)  twelve  of  them 
were  left  at  Fort  Dunmore,  as  the  Virginians  called 
Fort  Pitt. 


154  FUGITIVE    ESSAYS. 

The  delivery  of  white  prisoners  and  horses  in  pos- 
session of  the  Indians  appears  to  have  taken  place  at 
Point  Pleasant  early  in  February. 

"  Williamsbotg,  Va.,  Feb.  10, 1775. 

"  A  private  letter  from  the  frontiers  gives  an  account  that  the 
Cornstalk  King  of  the  Shawanese  nation,  a  few  days  ago,  arrived 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Great  Kenhawa,  where  Captaiu  Russell  is  sta- 
tioned, and  delivered  to  him  several  of  the  old  white  prisoners, 
and  a  number  of  horses,  agreeable  to  Lord  Dunmore's  desire.  The 
Cornstalk  informs  that  every  thing  at  present  is  peaceable  and 
quiet  in  the  quarter  he  left,  but  that  he  would  not  undertake  to  say 
how  long  that  pacific  disposition  would  last,  as  the  Fennsylvanians 
have  sent  some  of  their  traders  there,  who  were  endeavoring  all 
they  could  to  persuade  them  that  Lord  Dunmore's  view,  in  bringing 
the  hostages  to  Williamsburg,  was  to  deceive  them,  and  that  when- 
ever it  was  in  his  power  to  raise  another  army  he  would  immeili- 
ately  take  every  advantage  and  cut  them  off.  This  kind  of  reasoning 
had  no  material  effect,  it  seems,  as  the  Indians  throughout  the 
different  tribes  entertain  the  highest  opinion  of  his  Lordship's  con- 
duct with  respect  to  his  late  manoeuvres  on  the  frontiers. 

44  This  morning  we  received  information  from  a  gentleman  at 
the  Ohio  that  the  Mingo  Indians  have  killed  three  of  the  Dclawares, 
which  gives  much  concern  to  the  neighboring  white  people.  The 
Pennsylvanians,  it  appears,  are  greatly  blamed,  as  they  use 
every  artifice  in  their  power  to  create  discontent  and  jealousy 
among  the  Indians.  Our  correspondent  says  they  took  one  of  our 
constables  and  immediately  confined  him  in  one  of  their  jails, 
upon  which  Uco  companies  of  the  Virginians  assembled,  being 
determined  to  rescue  him,  which  they  did,  together  with  some 
others  which  they  served  in  the  same  manner,  and  also  polled 
down  the  jail.  The  Mingoes,  we  are  likewise  informed,  are  very 
desirous  to  see  Lord  Dunmore,  in  order  fully  to  comply  wirh  his 
terms,  and  to  make  a  lasting  peace  with  him." — American  Ar- 
chives, p.  1226. 


ANTIQUITIES   OF  AMERICA.  155 

ANTIQUITIES  OF  AMERICA.* 

[Hesperian,  July;  1839.] 


That  a  work  full  of  learned  research,  executed 
in  a  pure  and  pleasing  style  of  language,  abounding 
in  college  lore,  arranged  with  logical  accuracy,  and 
expressed  with  argumentative  force,  should  make  its 
appearance  at  the  West,  excites  extreme  wonder 
among  the  salt-water  literati.  Hear  the  North 
American  : — "  A  quarto  volume,  from  what,  when  we  - 
studied  geography,  used  to  be  known  by  the  instruc- 
tive name  of  the  *  territory  north-west  of  the  Ohio,' 
is  something  to  attract  attention.  And  when  we  open 
it,  and  find  it  printed  in  a  style  which  emulates  the 
London  press,  and  is  seldom  even  attempted  in  Amer- 
ica, we  turn  to  the  title-page  again,  to  see  if  we  did 
not  mistake  its  birth-place.  That  one  of  the  commu- 
nity in  that  great  pork-mart  (Cincinnati)  should 
write  a  work  upon  a  subject  requiring  long  study  and 
deep  thought,  is  to  us  a  pleasing  fact." 

Heretofore  speculations  relative  to  the  objects 
and  origin  of  our  ancient  works  have  made  their  ap- 
pearance  at   the   east,  and  far  from  the  interesting 

*  Notice  of  an  Inquiry  into  the  origin  of  the  Antiquities  of 
America.  By  John  Delafield,  Jr.  With  an  Appendix,  containing 
notes,  and  a  "View  of  the  Causes  of  the  Superiority  of  the  Men 
of  the  Northern  over  those  of  the  Southern  Hemisphere."  By 
James  Lakey,  M.  D.  Cincinnati :  published  by  N.  G.  Burgess 
&  Co.     Stereotyped  by  Glezen  &  Shepard.     1830. 


156  FUGITIVE  ESSAYS. 

remains  so  profusely  discussed.  The  American  Anti- 
quarian Society  at  Worcester,  Massachusetts,  made 
the  first  attempt  at  a  regular  exploration,  by  em- 
ploying Mr.  Atwater  to  survey  and  describe  them  in 
1819.  The  first  volume  of  their  Archaelogea  Amer- 
icana contains  the  results  of  this  gentleman's  labors ; 
and,  considering  the  time  of  its  appearance,  and  the 
means  appropriated  to  the  design,  much  information 
was  thus  spread  before  the  world.  The  work,  how- 
ever, contains  but  a  portion  of  these  ruins,  and  some 
of  the  most  remarkable  are  still  undescribed.  Sub- 
sequent examinations  have,  moreover,  thrown  dis- 
credit upon  some  of  the  representations  made  in  the 
Archaelogea,  and  in  points  upon  which  theories  have 
been  erected,  both  by  the  author  and  others. 

About  1833  Mr.  Joseph  Priest,  of  Albany,  issued 
the  third  edition  of  a  book  composed  apparently  from 
the  relations  of  travellers,  or  the  publications  of  Mr. 
Atwater  and  the  Rev.  Mr.  Harris.  The  last-named 
gentleman  came  very  early  to  Ohio,  and  located  with 
the  Ohio  company  at  Marietta.  In  1803  his  "  Tour  " 
was  published,  and  is  worthy  of  credit.  But  the 
production  of  Mr.  Priest,  though  highly  amusing  as  a 
collection  of  wonders,  will  rank  more  properly  with 
the  tales  of  the  "Tongo  Islands,"  as  a  work  of  autho- 
rity. He  has,  fortunately,  enlightened  us  in  some 
cases  as  to  the  source  from  whence  these  fictions  were 
derived.  An  Englishman,  by  the  name  of  Ash,  lias 
palmed  upon  him  at  least  two  entire  descriptions  of 
his  own  manufacture.  We  refer  to  the  grave  near 
Marietta,  with  mats  and  hieroglyphics,  and  the  cavity 
near  Zanesville,  containing  metallic  spheres.  So 
far  as  we  know  there  does  not  exist  such  a  descrip- 
tion or  descriptions  as  will  convey  to  non-residents  a 
proper  and  full  idea  of  the  ancient  works  that  remain 


ANTIQUITIES   OP   AMERICA.  157 

among  us.*  And,  consequently,  the  numerous  specula- 
tions hazarded  abroad  in  regard  to  their  design,  an- 
tiquity, and  present  appearance,  rest  upon  false,  or  at 
least,  uncertain  premises.  How  proper  it  is,  then, 
that  those  who  discuss  the  subject  should  be  eye  wit- 
nesses. And,  aside  from  the  assistance  thus  gained 
to  truth,  who  can  enter  upon  the  investigation  with  the 
ardor  of  one  standing  upon  the  tumulus  itself,  the 
sacred  altar  of  that  by-gone  race,  whose  origin  is  so 
deeply  obscured  by  the  mists  of  unrecorded  ages. 

To  wander  along  lines  of  embankment,  thrown  up 
in  every  variety  of  form  and  dimension,  parallels  and 
squares,  circles  and  ellipess,  and  every  combination 
of  curve  and  right  line,  is  not  the  gratification  of  a 
mere  idle  curiosity.  The  observer  catches  an  inspira- 
tion from  the  associations  of  the  place.  There,  in 
the  solitude  of  the  forest,  lie  the  uudoubted  works  of 
human  hands  ;  but,  by  whom  erected  ?  When  ?  For 
what  purpose  ?  What  language  once  sounded  through 
the  air?  What  feats  of  war,  devotions  of  religion, 
acts  of  wisdom,  or  deeds  of  cruelty  were  enacted 
here  ?  All  is  unknown  ;  wrapt  in  inscrutable  myste- 
ry ;  not  a  line  carved,  nor  a  record  left,  nor  even  a 
tradition  transmitted  whereby  we  can  form  a  satisfac- 
tory conclusion.  A  strong  enthusiasm  comes  upon 
the  mind,  and  every  step  along  the  ditches,  over  the 
mounds,  or  down  the  excavations,  raises  the  intensity 
of  interest  awakened  by  such  a  presence. 

Mr.  Delafield,  acting  under  the  full  weight  of  those 
exciting  mysteries,  and  feeling  all  the  ambition  natu- 
ral to  an  inquisitive  observer,  to  work  out  a  solution 
where  the  world  was  lost  in  wonder,  applied  himself 
unremittingly  to  an  examination  of  the  authors  upon 


*  This  deficiency  is   now  supplied  by  the  publication  in  1848, 
of  Vol.  I,  of  the  Smithsonian  Contributions  to  Knowledge. 

14 


158  FUGITIVE  ESSAYS. 

the  antiquities  of  Asia  and  South  America.  We  know 
not  whether  the  idea  that  the  race  of  the  mounds 
might  be  identical  with  the  Caucasian  race  was  origi- 
nal with  him  or  not.  It  was  a  bold  thought,  and 
though  apparently  a  wild  one,  he  has  led  us  from  fact 
to  fact,  and  deduction  to  deduction,  till  we  are  more 
surprised  at  the  clearness  of  the  proof  than  the  gran- 
deur of  the  conception.  And  whatever  may  be  the 
truth  in  regard  to  the  originality  of  this  doctrine, 
when  we  consider  the  nature  and  obscurity  of  the  case, 
there  can  be  but  one  opinion  as  to  the  merits  of  the 
researches  of  the  author,  gathering  from  the  four 
quarters  of  the  globe  corroborative  testimony  of  as- 
tonishing force.  The  work  may  be  considered  as  an 
abstract  of  the  heretofore  scattered  facts,  bearing  up- 
on that  question.  In  addition  to  a  most  judicious  se- 
lection of  evidence,  Mr.  D.  has  fortunately  obtained 
some  striking  auxiliary  facts  not  before  public,  and 
which  fell  within  his  reach  as  a  resident  of  the  coun- 
try where  the  works  are  found. 

Blumenbach  divides  the  human  race  into  three 
families,  because  he  found  three  marked  classes  of 
crania,  and  refers  the  origin  of  our  race  to  the  East- 
ern Continent.  In  viewing  the  head  or  skull  from 
above,  looking  downwards,  a  method  of  comparison 
called  norma  verticalin,  he  could  arrange  all  crania  in 
three  parcels,  from  a  similarity  of  outline  or  horizon- 
tal projection.  The  original  families  are  called  the 
Caucasian,  of  Southern  Asia,  the  Mongolian,  of  North- 
ern Asia,  and  the  Ethiopian.  Whether  this  anatomi- 
cal distinction  is  traced  to  the  three  sons  of  Noah,  as 
the  head  of  each  grand  division  of  the  human  family, 
we  are  unable  to  state. 

It  has  been  remarked  above,  that  the  book  under 
consideration  is  written  to  sustain  the  theory  that  the 
race  of  the  mound*  came  from  Asia.     The  first  propo- 


ANTIQUITIES   OF   AMERICA.  159 

sltion  advanced  is  this:  The  Peruvians  came  from 
Mexico.  Second :  The  Mexicans  were  from  the  North. 
Opposite  page  seventeen,  is  a  lithographic  representa- 
tion of  an  ancient  Peruvian  skull,  taken  from  the  tem- 
ple of  the  Sun  ;  and  in  the  same  plate,  two  crania, 
obtained  near  Bogota,  with  a  fourth  taken  from"  a 
mound  in  Cincinnati.  The  coincidence  of  form  in 
these  heads  goes  to  sustain  both  propositions.  Vega, 
book  3,  chap.  7,  says :  The  Peruvians  built  bridges  of 
withes.  Clavigero,  Vol.  I,  p.  389,  says,  the  Mexicans 
did  the  same  thing.  Ulloa,  who  spent  ten  years  in 
Peru,  Mexico,  and  Colombia,  says  :  "  If  we  have  seen 
one  American,  we  have  seen  all,  their  color  and  make 
are  so  nearly  alike.  '  Chronica  Del  Peru,  part  1, 
chap  19.  Copan,  a  country  between  Mexico  and  Pe- 
ru, was  settled  by  Toltecas,  an  ancient  Mexican  tribe. 
Letter  of  J.  Gulindo,  Archaelogea  Americana,  Vol.  II. 
When  the  Spaniards  gained  a  footing  in  South  Ameri- 
ca they  found  the  mountain  ranges  of  the  Cordilleras 
"  were  the  abodes  of  a  high  state  of  civilization — the 
residences  of  nations  dwelling  in  cities,  skilful  in  the 
texture  of  cloths,  ingenious  in  the  mechanical  arts, 
and  possessing  no  small  acquaintance  with  astronomy 
and  general  science."  "Among  these  people  have 
been  found  national  annals  and  records  which  go  back 
to  a  period  corresponding  with  our  sixth  century,  and 
relate  the  name  of  the  illustrious  emperor  Citin,  who 
led  from  the  unknown  regions  of  Azatlan  and  Teocol- 
huacan,  the  northern  nations  into  the  plains  of  Ana- 
huac,"  p.  15.  Azatlan  means  "  near  water,"  and 
Teocolhuacan  "  in  the  midst  of  the  houses  of  God." 
The  comparison  of  crania  also  establishes  a  plain  dif- 
ference between  the  present  North  American  Indian 
and  the  race  of  the  mounds.  The  same  examination 
farther  gives  an  identity  of  the  North  American  In- 
dian, with  the  Mongolian,  or  Tartar  race,  showing  a 


100  FUGITIVE  ESSAYS. 

successive  emigration  of  the  two  Asiatic  families  to 
the  American  Continent.  But  we  allow  the  author  to 
state  his  own  case. 

As  this  essay  is  a  chain  of  facts,  collected  from  many 
authors,  and  each  forms  a  link  in  the  concatenation,  the  loss 
of  one  of  which  may  break  at  once  the  argument  to  be  de- 
duced, it  were  well  to  state  the  position  we  now  occupy,  viz  : 
That  we  have  traced  the  descendants  of  that  race  which  con- 
structed our  ancient  works,  by  the  following  train  of  argu- 
ment: 

I.  The  extension  of  tumuli,  &c,  through  Western  North 
America  and  Mexico  to  Peru,  induces  a  belief  that  the  race 
which  constructed  the  memigrated  thither ;  and  their  termi- 
natinii  there  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  the  nation  went  no 
farther. 

II.  The  traditions  of  the  North  American  Indians  assort 
distinctly  their  ejectment  of  a  people  from  the  present  region 
of  Western  North  America,  who  correspond  with  the  native 
Mexicans,  and  who  emigrated  hence. 

III.  On  the  discovery  of  America,  a  tract  of  country  oc- 
cupying the  present  limits  of  Mexico,  Colombia,  and  Peru, 
was  in  a  high  state  of  civilization,  while  all  around  them 
was  shrouded  in  mental  darkness. 

IV.  National  annals  have  been  found  among  the  Mexi- 
cans, expressly  stating  that  a  period  corresponding  to  our 
sixth  century,  their  ancestors  emigrated  from  the  north,  un- 
der the  guidance  of  their  illustrious  Emperor,  Citin,  or 
Votan. 

V.  Traditions  assert  that  the  introduction  of  civilization 
into  Peru  was  by  the  emigration  of  certain  wise  men  from 
Mexico. 

VI.  Anatomical  research  exhibits  a  striking  coincidence 
between  the  crania  of  the  race  of  the  mounds,  and  of  the 
ancient  Peruvians,  differing  from  all  others  in  the  world, 
and  proving  conclusively  that  they  were  a  distinct  race  from 
the  ancestors  of  our  present  Indian  tribes. 

We    propose    now   an    investigation    of    the    inquiry, 


ANTIQUITIES   OF  AMERICA.  16 1 

u  whence  is  this  family  descended,  and  where  were  their  an- 
cient homes?" 

In  pursuing  systematically  the  chain  of  evidence,  it  is 
proposed  to  divide  the  argument  into  the  following  branches  : 

1.  The  evidence  from  comparative  philology. 

2.  That  drawn  from  anatomy. 

3.  That  deduced  from  their  mythology. 

4.  That  arising  from  their  hieroglyphical  writings. 

5.  That  drawn  from  their  astronomy. 

6.  The  evidence  derived  from  their  architecture  and  dec- 
orations. 

7.  That  deduced  from  their  manners  and  customs. 

To  give  the  proof  or  the  arguments  belonging  to 
the  several  heads  of  discussion  would  be  a  compila- 
tion of  the  book.  It  is  already  so  much  compressed 
as  not  to  admit  of  an  abstract. 

The  sub-division  called  "  Philological  Evidence," 
traces  first  the  resemblance  in  orthography,  between 
words  having  the  same  meaning  in  the  Asiatic  and 
North  American  tongues. 

There  are  eighteen  words  which  have  a  most  per- 
fect resemblance. 

The  inquiry  may  be  made,  "  What  number  of  words, 
found  to  resemble  one  another  in  different  languages,  will 
warrant  our  concluding  them  to  be  of  common  origin  ? " 
The  learned  Dr.  Young  applied  to  this  subject  the  mathe- 
matical test  of  the  calculus  of  probabilities,  and  says,  "  it 
would  appear  therefrom  that  nothing  whatever  could  be  in- 
ferred with  respect  to  the  relation  of  any  two  languages, 
from  the  coincidence  of  sense  of  any  single  word  in  both  of 
them ;  the  odds  would  be  three  to  one  against  the  agree- 
ment of  any  two  words ;  but  if  three  words  appear  to  be 
identical,  it  would  be  then  more  than  ten  to  one  that  they 
must  be  derived  in  both  cases  from  some  parent  language, 
or  introduced  in  some  other  manner ;  six  words  would  give 
more  than  seventeen  hundred  chances  to  one  j  and  eight, 
14* 


102  FUGITIVE     ESSAYS. 

near  one  hundred  thousand :  so  that  in  these  cases  the  evi- 
dence would  be  little  short  of  absolute  certainty/* 

Applying  the  same  method  of  calculation  to  the 
terms  used  by  the  southern  Asiatics,  and  the  South 
Americans,  a  considerable  list  is  found  to  be  common 
to  both.  "  Cami"  is  the  term  for  the  god  in  Japan  ; 
"Cemi"  that  of  the  deities  of  Mexico.  In  Sanscrit 
"indre"  is  the  sun,  "manya"  love,  "  vipulo"  great ; 
in  the  language  of  the  Incas  of  Peru,  "inti"  the  sun, 
"  munay  "  love,   "  veypul  "  great. 

The  next  division  relates  to  anatomy,  and  here  the 
connection  of  the  Northern  American,  and  the  North- 
ern Asiatic,  is  first  introduced. 

"The  portrait  painter,  Mr.  Smibert,  who  accompanied  Dr. 
Berkeley,  then  Dean  of  Derry,  afterwards  Bishop  of  Cloyne, 
from  Italy  to  America,  in  1728,  was  employed  by  the  Grand 
Duke  of  Florence  to  paint  two  or  three  Siberian  Tartar?, 
presented  to  the  Duke  by  the  Czar  of  Russia.  Mr.  Smibert, 
on  his  landing  at  Narragansett  Bay  with  Dr.  Berkeley,  in- 
stantly recognized  the  Indians  to  be  the  same  people  as  the 
Siberian  Tartars  whose  pictures  he  had  taken.  I  shall  show 
that  the  language  of  the  Siberian  Tartars  and  that  of  the 
Tongousi  have  an  extensive  range  in  North  America/'  f 

The  Mongolian  race,  as  the  American,  contains  several 
sub-divisions,  many  tribes  possessing  dissimilar  customs, 
habits,  and  languages.  But  throughout  the  whole  north  of 
Asia  we  find  this  family  leading  a  nomadic  or  roving  and 
savage  life.  Equally  given  to  war  and  to  the  chase,  they 
both  reject  the  light  of  civilization  gleaming  over  their 
southern  borders. 

Illustrative  of  this  branch,  a  lithograph  of  the 
cranium  of  an  Egyptian  Mummy  is  given,  and  con- 

*  Philosophical  Transactions,  CIX,  for  1818,  p.  70. 
f  Dr.  S.  B.  Barton,  pp.  XVI,  XVII. 


ANTIQUITIES   OF   AMERICA.  163 

trasted  with  another,  from  an  ancient  burying  ground 
near  Lima.  The  sketches  are  taken  from  originals 
now  in  Cincinnati,  and  are  doubtless  correct.  The 
resemblance,  however,  is  not  strong  enough  to  give 
great  support  to  the  anatomical  argument. 

We  come  now  to  the  "  Mythological  Evidence." 

Here,  again,  is  a  coincidence  between  the  aborigines  of 
America  and  the  southern  Asiatics,  that  we  cannot  fairly  at- 
tribute to  mere  chance. 

"  The  Mexicans  had  some  ideas  of  a  supreme  God,  to 
whom  they  gave  fear  and  adoration.  They  did  not  repre- 
sent him  by  any  visible  form,  calling  him  '  Teotl/  or  God, 
to  whom  they  applied  expressions  highly  characteristic  of 
his  nature.  They  also  believed  in  an  evil  spirit,  called  '  77a- 
catecolotl,'  or  '  rational  owl.'  "  * 

This  quotation  bears  more  directly  upon  the  con- 
nection between  the  race  of  the  mounds  and  the 
Mexicans.  It  is  part  of  a  statement  showing  a  belief 
in  the  metempsychosis,  or  transmigration  of  souls, 
common  to  the  Hindoo  and  the  Mexican,  that  follows 
the  description  of  a  painting  which  is  copied  in  the 
work. 

The  opposite  plate  is  the  copy  of  a  Mexican  painting 
taken  from  the  Codex  Vaticanus,  at  Rome,  whither  it  ar- 
rived from  the  new  continent,  shortly  after  the  early  conquests 
in  New  Spain.     It  will  be  found  in  the  Paris  folio  edition  of 

*  The  Mexicans  were  in  the  habit  of  -worshipping  rude  sculp- 
tures of  this  evil  spirit,  to  prevent  his  anger,  and  consequent 
dangerous  power.  One  of  these  images  was  dug  out  of  a  large 
tumulus  in  the  city  of  Columbus,  the  capital  of  Ohio,  and  was  ex- 
hibited to  the  Historical  Society  when  an  abstract  of  this  essay  was 
read  by  the  author.  It  is  an  owl  rudely  carved  out  of  a  block  of 
sand-stone,  on  the  back  of  which  are  two  holes  apparently  bored 
by  a  conical  instrument,  and  in  such  a  direction  as  to  meet  at  the 
points,  so  that  a  thong  can  be  passed  through  by  which  the  idol 
can  be  suspended." 


164  FUGITIVE   E8SAYS. 

Baron  Humboldt's  "Vues  des  Cordilleres."  The  lafgt 
figure  represents  the  celebrated  "  serpent  woman/'  Cihuaco- 
huatl,  called,  also,  Tonacacihua,  "  woman  of  our  flesh." 
The  Mexicans  considered  her  the  mother  of  the  human  race. 
She  is  always  represented  with  a  great  serpent  j  but  for  this 
no  reason  is  assigned,  as  though,  in  process  of  time,  part  of 
the  tradition  were  lost.  Behind  the  serpent,  who  appears  to 
be  speaking  to  Eve,  are  two  naked  figures,  of  different  color, 
and  in  the  attitude  of  contention.  The  serpent  woman  was 
considered  at  Mexico  as  the  mother  of  twin  children,  and 
which  are  here  represented.  This  part  of  the  painting 
is  entirely  unexplained.  Baron  Humboldt  supposes  they 
represent  Cain  and  Abel,  of  Semitic  tradition  He  con- 
siders the  other  figures,  however,  merely  as  vases,  re- 
specting which  a  quarrel  may  have  ensued.  I  would  re- 
spectfully suggest  that  (if  so  much  be  conceded,  as  is  neces- 
sarily true,  that  the  chief  figures  are  Eve,  the  serpent,  Cain 
and  Abel)  then  the  others  are  the  two  altars,  one  of  which, 
standing  erect,  bears  the  offering  of  Abel,  viz :  a  ram,  the 
horns  of  which  arc  rudely  delineated ;  while  the  other  is 
the  altar  of  Cain,  rejected  by  the  Almighty,  and  therefore 
painted  upside  down,  containing  his  offering,  viz  :  the  fruits 
of  the  earth.  Baron  Humboldt  thinks  the  difference  of  the 
color  of  Cain  attributable  perhaps  to  fancy  or  chance.  >Ia  v 
we  not  consider  it  typical  of  the  mark  set  on  the  murderer 
by  Jehovah  for  the  heinousness  of  his  guilt?  For  it  will 
be  noticed  that  Abel  is  represented  with  the  same  tint  as 
Eve  ;  and  from  the  general  care  in  the  distribution  of  colors 
through  the  piece,  we  can  not  infer  want  of  design. 

A  tradition  exists  among  the  native  Mexicans  beating 
close  analogy  to  the  Semitic  account  of  the  flood,  the  >»nil< I- 
ing  of  the  tower  of  Babel,  and  its  destruction ;  and  which 
corresponds  with  the  early  traditions  of  Xisthurus  of  the 
Hindoos. 

One  or  two  copious  extracts  from  this  division  of 
the  subject  seems  to  be  necessary. 

The  following  description  of  the  Mexican  cosmogony  is 


ANTIQUITIES   OF   AMERICA.  165 

condensed  from   the  valuable   work  of  Baron  Humboldt, 
"  des  anciens  monumens  de  Y  Amerique." 

The  sacred  books  of  the  Hindoos,  especially  the  Bhaga- 
vita  Pourana,  speak  of  the  four  ages,  and  of  the  pralayas, 
or  cataclysms,  which  at  different  epochs  have  destroyed  the 
human  race.  Gomara,  in  his  C&nqnista,  fol.  119,  says  that 
the  natives  of  Culhua,  believe  according  to  their  hieroglyph- 
ical  paintings,  that,  previous  to  the  sun  which  now  enlight- 
ens them,  four  had  already  been  extinguished.  These  four 
suns  are  as  many  ages,  in  which  our  species  has  been  anni- 
hilated by  inundations,  by  earthquakes,  by  a  general  confla- 
gration, and  by  the  effect  of  destroying  tempests.  The  Co- 
dex Vaticanus,  at  Rome,  No.  8738,  contains  the  drawings 
which  are  represented  on  the  annexed  pages,  being  copies  of 
native  hieroglyphic  paintings,  made  by  the  Dominican 
monk,  Pedro  de  los  Rios,  A.  I).,  1566.  They  illustrate  the 
destruction  of  the  world  at  the  expiration  of  each  age,  and 
are  described  in  a  very  curious  history,  written  in  the  Aztec 
tongue,  fragments  of  which  have  been  preserved  by  the 
native  Mexican,  Fernando  de  Alvar  Ixtlilochitl.  The  testi- 
mony of  a  native  writer,  and  the  copies  of  Mexican  paint- 
ings, made  on  the  spot,  merit,  undoubtedly,  more  confidence 
than  the  recital  of  the  Spanish  historians. 

The  four  hieroglyphical  paintings  are  given  in  full. 
The  four  cycles,  or  ages,  are  four  thousand  to  five 
thousand  years  each,  called  the  "  age  of  Justice  "  (five 
thousand  two  hundred  and  six  years);  "age  of  fire/' 
(four  thousand  eight  hundred  and  four  years) ;  "  age  of 
wind,"  (four  thousand  and  ten);  "the  age  of  the  flood," 
(four  thousand  and  eight.)  A  man  and  a  woman  escapes 
from  each  cataclysm,  indicating  a  coincidence  with  the 
Jewish  Scriptures,  and  also  with  the  Hindoo  belief. 

Hieroglyphic*. — Our  knowledge  of  hieroglyphical 
writing  is  confined  to  the  Egyptian  productions,  of 
late  years  so  fully  elucidated  by  the  Champollions. 
There  are  three  kinds  or  degrees  of  this  method  of 
making  records  :  the  phonetic,  figurative,  and  symbol- 


166  FUGITIVE  ESSAYS. 

ical.  The  first  expresses  sound  like  an  alphabet,  and 
constitutes  much  of  the  Egyptian  writing.  Cham- 
pollion  read  the  names  of  Ptolemy  and  Cleopatra,  on 
the  Ilosetta  monument,  by  a  resort  to  this  method. 
Humboldt  says  (vues  des  Cordilleres,  pp.  64-5), 
"  There  are,  in  Mexico,  remains  of  those  hieroglyph- 
ics, called  phonetic,  having  relation  not  to  the  thing, 
but  to  the  spoken  name.  The  phonetic  system  of  the 
Toltecans  is  intelligible  at  first  glance.  The  head  of 
a  Toltecan  king  appears,  along  with  others,  in  the 
pyramidal  tower  of  Palenque."  The  name  is  inscribed 
over  it  in  a  rectangle  or  cartouche,  after  the  Egyp- 
tian fashion,  and  reads  Acatla  Potzin.  The  second 
method,  the  figurative,  "  was  in  common  use  among 
the  Mexicans,  and  forms  no  small  portion  of  their 
scriptural  remains,"  p.  45.  As  to  the  third,  or  sym- 
bolical, "  the  Mexicans  not  only  represented  the  sim- 
ple images  of  objects,  but  they  had  some  characters, 
answering,  like  the  signs  of  algebraists,  for  things 
devoid  of  figure,  or  difficult  of  representation,"  p.  45. 
Astronomical  Evidence. — u  The  civil  year  of  the 
Aztecs  is  a  solar  year  of  three  hundred  and  sixty- 
five  days.  It  was  divided  into  eighteen  months  of 
twenty  days,  making  three  hundred  and  sixty  days, 
to  which  they  added  five  days,  and  began  the  year 
anew. 

The  Peruvian  year  was  divided,  as  is  customary  in  south- 
ern Asia,  into  twelve  moons  [guilla],  the  synodical  revolu- 
tions of  which  end  at  three  hundred  and  fifty-four  days, 
eight  hours  and  forty-eight  minutes.  To  correct  the  lunar 
year,  and  make  it  agree  with  the  solar,  they  added,  accord- 
ing to  an  ancient  custom,  eleven  days,  which,  after  an  ed:<t 
from  the  Im-as,  were  distributed    among  the   twelve  moons. 

But  perhaps  a  still  more  striking  instance  presents  itself 

1 1  oj  in  i  o  mpariBon  of  the  zodiacal  signs  of  aoethera 

and    this    civilized   Aboriginal    race    of    America.       Baron 


ANTIQUITIES   OF  AMERICA.  167 

Humboldt  collected  and  arranged  in  a  tabular  form  the 
names,  of  the  Mexican  hieroglyphic  zodiacal  signs.  They 
were  compiled  by  him  from  the  various  writers  of  the  six- 
teenth century.  From  this  it  appears  that  a  great  propor- 
tion of  the  names  by  which  the  Mexicans  indicated  the 
twenty  days  of  their  month,  are  those  of  a  Zodiac  used 
since  the  remotest  antiquity  by  the  inhabitants  of  eastern 
Asia. 

These  quotations  we  consider  very  positive  evidence  of 
an  early  identity  between  the  aboriginal  race  of  America, 
and  the  southern  Asiatic  and  Egyptian  family.  To  con- 
elude  the  testimony  on  this  point,  the  following  extract  of  a 
letter  of  Mr.  Jomard  is  adduced : 

"  I  have  also  recognized,  in  your  memoir  on  the  division 
of  time  among  the  Mexican  nations  compared  with  those  of 
Asia,  some  very  striking  analogies  between  the  Toltec  char- 
acters and  institutions  observed  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile. 
Among  these  analogies  there  is  one  which  is  worthy  of  at- 
tention. It  is  the  use  of  the  vague  year  of  three  hundred 
and  sixty-five  days,  composed  of  equal  months,  and  of  five 
complementary  days,  equally  employed  at  Thebes  and 
Mexico,  a  distance  of  three  thousand  leagues.  It  is  true 
that  the  Egyptians  had  no  intercalation,  while  the  Mexicans 
intercalated  thirteen  days  every  fifty-two  years.  Still  far- 
ther :  intercalation  was  proscribed  in  Egypt,  to  such  a  point 
that  the  kings  swore,  on  their  accession,  never  to  permit 
them  to  be  employed  during  their  reign.  Notwithstanding 
this  difference,  we  find  a  very  striking  agreement  in  the 
length  of  the  duration  of  the  solar  year.  In  reality,  the 
intercalation  of  the  Mexicans  being  thirteen  days  on  each 
cycle  of  fifty-two  years,  comes  to  the  same  thing  as  that  of 
the  Julian  Calendar,  which  is  one  day  in  four  years;  and 
consequently  supposes  the  duration  of  the  year  to  be  three 
hundred  and  sixty-five  days,  six  hours. 

"  Now  it  is  remarkable  that  the  same  solar  year  of  three 
hundred  and  sixty-five  days,  six  hours,  adopted  by  nations 
so  different,  and  perhaps  still  more  remote  in  their  state  of 
civilization  than  in  their  geographical  distance,  relates  to  a 


168  FUGITIVE  ESSAYS. 

real  astronomical  period,  and  belongs  peculiarly  to  the 
Egyptians. 

"  As  to  the  Mexicans,  it  would  be  superfluous  to  exam- 
ine how  they  attained  this  knowledge.  Such  a  problem 
would  not  soon  be  solved ;  but  the  fact  of  the  intercalation 
of  thirteen  days  every  cycle,  that  is,  the  use  of  a  year  of 
three  hundred  and  sixty-five  days  and  a  quarter,  is  a  proof 
that  it  was  either  borrowed  from  the  Egyptians,  or  that  they 
had  a  common  origin." 

Architectural  Evidence. — In  noticing  these  seve- 
ral heads  we  can  not  do  it  more  briefly  than  in  the 
terms  of  the  author,  and  in  selecting  the  paragraphs, 
to  give  a  general  outline  of  his  proof,  are  at  a  great 
loss  which  to  pass  over,  and  which  to  transfer.  To 
give  full  force  to  his  opinions,  a  complete  transcript 
would  be  necessary. 

Fronting  p.  55,  we  see  a  plan  of  the  palace  of 
Mitla,  in  Mexico,  with  ramparts  and  mounds. 

The  distribution  of  the  apartments  bears  a  striking  an- 
alogy to  what  has  been  remarked  in  the  monuments  of  Up- 
per Egypt,  as  drawn  by  Denon  and  the  savans  of  the  Insti- 
tute of  Cairo.  Nay,  the  building  itself  ■  in  the  form  of 
the  Egyptian  Tau. 

In  North  America,  the  sepulchres  of  the  ancient  race 
are  the  tumuli  of  the  country.  In  Peru  they  are  the  same. 
"The  Indians,  having  laid  a  body,  without  burial,  upon  the 
grouud,  environed  it  with  a  rude  arch  of  stones,  or  bricks, 
and  earth  was  thrown  upon  it,  as  a  tumulus,  which  they  call 
;/u<int.  In  general,  they  are  eight  or  ten  toises  high,  and 
about  twenty  long,  and  the  breadth  rather  less;  but  BMM 
are  larger.  They  are  in  shape  not  precisely  pyramidal,  but 
more  like  hillocks.  The  plains  near  Cayambe  arc  <  <>v<  n  d 
with  them ;  one  of  their  principal  temples  having  been 
there,  where  the  kings  and  caciques  of  Quito  were  bill  Mb"  * 

In  the  North  American  tumuli,  various  articles  are  found 
buried  with   the  occupant,  such  as  idols,  clay  masks,  mica, 

*  Ulloa,  Vol.  I,  p.  3C6.     Gent's  Ma^.,  Vol.  XXII,  p.  Z1& 


ANTIQUITIES   OF   AMERICA.  169 

stone  axes,  silver  and  copper  rings  and  rosaries.  Precisely 
similar  articles  are  discovered  in  the  sepulchres  of  Mexico 
and  Peru. 

"  In  the  tombs  of  Siberia,  and  the  deserts  which  border 
it  southward,  arc  found  thousands  of  cast  idols  of  gold,  sil- 
ver, copper,  tin  and  brass.  Some  of  the  tombs  are  of  earth, 
and  raised  as  high  as  houses,  and  in  such  numbers  upon  the 
plain,  that  at  a  distance  they  appear  like  a  ridge  of  hills/'  * 

The  most  ancient  pyramids  of  the  Mexicans  are  those 
of  Teotlihuacan,  and  are  said  to  have  been  built  by  the  Tol- 
tec  race. 

"  The  group  of  Teotlihuacan  is  eight  leagues  north-east 
of  Mexico,  in  a  plain  called  Micoatl,  or  the  "  Path  of  the 
Dead."  -There  are  two  large  ones  dedicated  to  the  sun, 
(Tonitiuh),  and  to  the  moon,  (Metzli),  they  are  surrounded 
by  several  hundreds  of  small  pyramids,  which  form  streets, 
in  exact  lines  from  north  to  south  and  from  east  to  west. 
One  is  fifty-five,  the  other  forty-four  metres  in  perpendicular 
height.  The  basis  of  the  first  is  two  hundred  and  eight 
metres  in  length.  It  is,  according  to  Mr.  Oteyza's  measure- 
ment, made  in  1803,  higher  than  the  Myceninuns,  the  third 
of  the  great  pyramids  of  Greiza,  in  Egypt;  and  the  length 
of  the  base  is  nearly  equal  to  that  of  the  Cephren.  The 
small  ones  are  nine  or  ten  metres  high,  and  are  said  to  be 
burial  places  of  the  chiefs  of  the  tribes.  The  two  large 
ones  had  four  principal  stories,  each  sub-divided  into  steps. 
Tiie  nucleus  is  composed  of  clay,  mixed  with  small  stones, 
and  incased  by  a  thick  wall  of  porous  amygdaloid.  This 
construction  recalls  to  mind  that  of  one  of  the  Egyptian 
pyramids  of  Sakhara,  which  has  six  stories,  and  which,  ac- 
cording to  Pococke,  is  a  mass  of  pebbles  and  yellow  mortar, 
covered  on  the  outside  with  rough  stones."  f 

The  pyramids  of  Dgizeh,  in  Egypt,  it  will  be  borne  in- 
mind,  are  also  surrounded  by  smaller  edifices  in  regular  or- 
der, and  closely  correspond  in  arrangement  to  what  has  been 
here  described. 

*  Rankin's  Conquest  of  Peru,  p.  238. 
f  Rankin's  Conquest  of  Peru,  p.  350. 

15 


170  FUGITIVE     ESSAYS. 

"  The  greatest;  most  ancient,  and  most  celebrated  <■; 
pyramidal  monuments  of  Anabuac  is  the  teocalli  of  Cholula. 
At  a  distance  it  has  the  aspect  of  a  natural  hill  covered 
with  vegetation.  It  has  four  stories  of  equal  height.  It 
appears  to  have  been  constructed  exactly  in  the  direction  of 
the  four  cardinal  points.  The  base  of  this  pyramid  is  twice 
as  broad  as  that  of  the  Cheops  in  Egypt,  but  its  height  is 
very  little  more  than  that  of  Mycerinus.  On  comparing  the 
dim  tnsions  of  the  house  of  the  Sun,  in  Peru,  with  those  of 
the  pyramid  of  Cholula,  we  see  that  the  people  who  con- 
structed these  remarkable  monuments  intended  to  give  them 
the  same  height,  but  with  bases  of  length  in  proportion  of 
one  to  two.  The  pyramid  of  Cholula  is  built  of  unburnt 
bricks,  alternating  with  layers  of  clay."  * 

This  edifice,  it  would  appear,  closely  corresponds  with 
the  great  temple  of  Bel,  or  Belus,  at  Babylon,  as  described 
by  Herodotus. 

From  this  may  we  not  learn  the  intention  of  the  em- 
bankment around  the  large  tumuli  of  North  America :  for 
instance  at  Circleville  and  Marietta  ?  And  do  we  not  clearly 
*ee  that  this  race  continued  the  same  manner  of  construct- 
ing their  "  high  places"  in  Mexico  and  Peru,  with  the  im- 
provements incident  to  their  permanent  location  there  ? 

Another  feature  presents  great  analogy.  Their  build- 
ings, particularly  the  sacred  houses,  were  covered  with 
hieroglyphics.  Each  race,  Egyptian,  .Mexican,  and  Peruvian, 
recorded  the  deeds  of  their  gods  upon  the  walls  of  their 
temples.  Nay,  science  was  also  sculptured  thereon,  in  both 
countries,  in  the  form  of  zodiacs  and  planispheres,  corres- 
ponding even  in  signs. 

This  section  upon  architecture,  from  which  we 
have  so  freely  taken,  concludes  with  a  lithograph  of 
an  image  which  Humboldt  considers  as  an  Aztec 
princess.  It  was  taken  from  the  ruins  of  a  teocalli. 
at  Tenochtitlan,  destroyed  by  Cortez,  and  with  the 

*  Essai  Politique  sur  la  Nouvelle  Espagne. 


ANTIQUITIES   OF  AMERICA.  171 

exception  of  a  string  of  beads  across  the  forehead,  is 
a  tolerable  copy  of  the  Egyptian  Isis. 

Manners  and  Customs, — In  the  valley  of  the 
Scioto,  in  Ohio,  and  at  several  places  in  Kentucky,  in 
the  vicinity  of  ancient  works,  the  "  pyrula  perversa  " 
has  been  found  in  numbers  exceeding  one  hundred, 
and  generally  at  some  depth  in  the  ground.  It  is  a 
shell,  in  size  varying  from  six  to  fourteen  inches  in 
length,  and  when  not  injured  is  entire,  and  without 
artificial  openings  and  marks.  No  such  shell  is  known 
on  the  American  coast,  except  a  small  specimen  in  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico ;  but  they  are  said  to  exist  as  a  ma- 
rine production  on  the  shores  of  Hindoostan,  and  arc 
there  used  in  the  performance  of  religious  ceremonies. 
Many  other  similarities  are  pointed  out  as  having  ex- 
isted in  Egypt,  Hindoostan,  China,  and  Peru. 

A  few  lines  may  be  well  introduced  here  to  connect 
Hindoostan  and  Egypt. 

"  The  sepoys  who  joined  the  British  army  in  Egypt 
under  Lord  Hutchinson,  imagined  that  they  found  their  own 
temples  in  the  ruins  of  Dendera,  and  were  greatly  exaspera- 
ted at  the  natives  for  their  neglect  of  the  ancient  deities, 
whose  images  arc  still  preserved.  So  strongly,  indeed, 
were  they  impressed  with  this  identity,  that  they  proceeded 
to  perform  their  devotions  with  all  the  ceremonies  practised 
in  their  own  land. 

"  But  the  most  striking  point  of  resemblance  between 
the  inhabitants  of  Egypt  and  India  is  the  institution  of 
castes — that  singular  arrangement  which  places  an  insupe- 
rable barrier  between  different  orders  of  men  in  the  same 
country,  and  renders  their  respective  honors,  toils,  and  deg- 
radation strictly  hereditary  and  permanent." 

The  author  ought  by  no  means  to  omit  to  state  that  pre- 
cisely the  same  division  of  caste  prevailed  among  the  an- 
cient Mexicans  and  Peruvians. 

Here  terminates  the  comparison  between  the  an- 


172  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

cicnt  inhabitants  of  southern  Asia,  and  south  and  cen- 
tral America,  for  the  purpose  of  sustaining  their  iden- 
tity. The  next  step  is  to  trace  a  connection  by 
emigration^  from  Babylon  to  Egypt,  Scythia,  Siberia, 
North  America,  Azatlan  (western  States),  Anahuac, 
Mexico,  and  Peru.  Our  object  is  less  to  criticise  than 
to  present  an  outline  of  this  extraordinary  work  ;  ex- 
traordinary, not  so  much  on  account  of  originality,  as 
iudicious  and  extensive  research ;  as  presenting  an  ac- 
cumulation of  sensible  matter  relevant  to  this  inter- 
esting question ;  as  embodying  all  the  learning  extant, 
which  has  a  rational  bearing  upon  the  origin,  super- 
stitions, and  general  character  of  a  race  whose  deeds 
are  so  thoroughly  obscured  by  the  lapse  of  time. 

On  page  sixty-eight,  the  author  says,  "  we  now 
enter  the  most  difficult,  yet  the  most  interesting  part 
of  our  subject,  the  endeavor  to  trace  the  origin  and 
history  of  the  aboriginal  race  of  America.  Cuth, 
Cush,  or  Chus,  the  grandson  of  Noah,  and  son  of  Ham, 
was  the  ancestor  of  the  Cuthites,  who  built  Babel. 
This  took  place  under  Nimrod,  the  fourth  from  Noah, 
and  after  the  dispersion  consequent  upon  the  confusion 
of  tongues,  he  founded  the  Ancient  Scythian  Empire; 
Scythian  being  the  Greek  style  for  Cuthite. 

It  appears  the  warlike  subjects  of  Nimrod  and 
their  descendants  gave  their  names  to  all  countries 
conquered  or  occupied  by  them,  and  that  the  same 
name  has,  since  their  departure  or  emigration  and  from 
the  time  of  Herodotus  to  this  day,  been  used  to  desig- 
nate a  different  race  and  country.  The  Tartars  and 
northern  Asiatics,  or  Mongolians,  who  occupied  Dacia, 
and  the  Caspian,  are  also  called  Scythians.  This  is 
an  important  distinction.  After  the  confusion  of  lan- 
guage, "  the  country  about  Babel  was  evacuated.  A 
large  body  of  the  fugitives  betook  themselves  to  Egypt, 
and  are  commemorated  under  the  name  of  the  Shep- 


ANTIQUITIES   OF   AMERICA.  173 

herds." — Bryant's  Ancient  Mythology,  Vol.  Ill,  p. 
262. 

u  These  Cuthites,  then,  obtained  the  mastery  of  Egypt, 
established  a  noble  empire,  under  the  title  of  "  the  Shep- 
herd Kings,"  and  constructed,  as  they  did  in  €haldea, 
large  cities,  pyramids,  obelisks,  and  other  massive  buildings, 
the  remains  of  which  still  furnish  testimony  to  the  magnifi- 
cence and  power  of  the  race,  "  The  Shepherds  arc  said  to 
have  maintained  themselves  in  this  situation  for  five  bun- 
dred  and  eleven  years.  At  last  the  natives  of  Upper  Egypt 
rose  in  opposition  to  them,  and  defeated  them  under  the 
conduct  of  King  Halisphragmuthosis.  They  afterwards  be- 
leaguered them  in  their  stronghold,  Avaris,  which  seems  to 
have  been  a  walled  province,  containing  no  less  than  ten 
thousand  square  arourae.  Here  they  maintained  themselves 
for  a  long  space ;  but  at  last,  under  Thummosis,  the  son  of 
the  former  king,  they  were  reduced  to  such  straits  as  to  be 
glad  to  leave  the  country/'  *  "  Wearied  out  by  the  length 
and  straitness  of  the  seige,  they  at  last  came  to  terms  of 
composition,  and  agreed  to  leave  the  country,  if  they  might 
do  it  unmolested.  They  were  permitted  to  depart,  and  ac- 
cordingly retired,  to  the  amount  of  two  hundred  and 
forty  thousand  persons.  Amosis,  upon  this,  destroyed 
their  fortifications  and  laid  their  city  in  ruins." 

Early  writers  notice  the  journeyings  of  this  banished 
race  in  a  north  easterly  direction  as  far  as  Palestine.  Here 
all  historical  traces  are  lost  of  them,  and  their  name  is 
buried  in  oblivion. 

On  page  seventy-five  will  be  found  the  following 
paragraph,  relative  to  various  emigrations  from  Egypt: 

There  were  no  less  than  three  exodi  from  Egypt.  The 
first  was  the  one  just  named,  viz  :  the  expulsion  of  two  hun- 
dred and  forty  thousand  Cuthites  by  Halisphragmuthosis ; 
this  occurred  about  two  hundred  years  before  the  entrance  of 

*  Bryant.     Vol.  HI,  p.  237. 

15* 


174  FUGITIVE  ESSAYS. 

the  Israclitish  shepherds  into  Egypt.  The  second  exodus 
was  that  of  this  once  holy  people,  under  the  guidance  of 
the  Almighty,  through  his  servant  Moses,  the  account  of 
which  we  have  in  profane  history,  substantiated  in  the  minut- 
est particulars  by  the  sacred  writings  given  us  through  the  in- 
spiration of  the  Holy  Spirit,  which  protected  and  preserved  the 
race.  But  the  third  is  not  so  generally  known.  We  pro- 
pose to  give  a  statement  thereof  and  show  the  authority  on 
which  it  rests.  The  author  deems  it  necessary  this  should 
be  kept  in  view,  in  order  to  prevent  doubt  as  to  the  course 
taken  by  the  first  emigrants  from  Egypt. 

And  at  page  eighty  it  is  said  : 

From  what  has  here  been  related,  then,  it  is  thought 
that  little  or  no  doubt  can  arise  as  to  the  destination  of  the 
three  expelled  races,  on  their  departure  from  Egypt :  The 
first,  in  a  north-easterly  direction  through  Palestine ;  the 
second,  under  Jehovah's  guidance,  into  the  land  of  Canaan ; 
and  tJie  third  through  Greece,  westwardly  through  Europe, 
to  their  final  destination  in  Great  Britain.  Here,  then,  we 
return  to  the  subject  matter  of  our  investigation,  viz  :  the 
progress  of  this  first  migratory  race  of  Cuthite  "  shepherds/' 
after  they  journeyed  from  Egypt  to  Palestine. 

Pursuing  the  chain  of  reasoning  with  the  closeness 
of  a  legal  argument,  the  author  says : 

It  will  be  recollected,  perhaps,  that  in  the  argument  ex- 
hibiting the  Anatomical  analogy  between  the  aboriginal  race 
of  America,  and  that  of  Southern  Asia,  a  close  affinity  was 
marked  between  the  characteristic  traits  of  the  North  Ameri- 
can Indian,  and  the  Mongul  or  Tartar  race,  in  their  nomadic 
life,  and  their  rejection  of  civilization.  We  find  in  North 
America,  tumuli,  ramparts,  etc.,  which  the  Indians  know 
nothing  about;  and  from  what  has  thus  far  been  shown, 
these  works  prove  to  be  the  remains  of  some  other,  and  a 
more  civilized  race.     The  Mongolian  family  are  equally  rude 


ANTIQUITIES   OP   AMERICA.  175 

with  the  Indian,  and  as  little  disposed  to  exert  a  talent  for 
mechanical  ingenuity.  If,  then,  we  find  in  Tartary  and  Si- 
beria monuments  like  the  American,  displaying  industry 
and  talent,  unknown  to  and  unpractised  by  those  nations, 
we  must  necessarily  conclude  they  are  the  works  of  some 
ancient  and  great  people  once  occupying  the  land  so  enriched 
by  the  remnants  of  former  greatness  and  power.  That  these 
exist,  it  is  proposed  to  show : 

"  In  the  museum  at  St.  Petersburgh,  are  preserved  a 
multitude  of  vessels,  diadems,  weapons,  military  trophies, 
ornaments  of  dress,  coins,  etc.,  which  have  been  found  in 
the  Tartarian  tombs,  in  Siberia,  and  on  the  Volga.  They 
are  of  gold,  silver,  and  copper. 

"  In  the  tombs  of  Siberia,  and  the  deserts  which  border 
it  southward,  are  found  thousands  of  cast  idols  of  gold,  sil- 
ver, copper,  tin,  and  brass. 

"  Some  of  the  tombs  are  of  earth,  and  raised  as  high  as 
houses,  and  in  such  numbers  upon  the  plain  that  at  a  dis- 
tance they  appear  like  a  ridge  of  hills;  some  are  partly  of 
rough  hewn  stones  or  of  free-stone,  oblong  and  triangular; 
others  of  them  are  built  entirely  of  stone." 

When,  then,  we  find  history  pointing  us  to  an  exiled 
race,  slowly  travelling  in  a  northwardly  direction,  through 
hosts  of  foes,  whose  animosity,  revenge  for  past  tyranny, 
and  spirit  of  self  preservation,  would  constantly  drive  them 
forward  and  onward ;  and  when  we  see  this  race  possessed 
of  the  very  genius,  which,  in  no  other  in  those  days,  pro- 
duced a  similar  degree  of  excellence,  enabling  them  to  raise 
pyramids  and  cities,  and  ramparts  for  protection,  preserving 
their  dead  with  scrupulous  care,  and  interring  with  them 
such  animals  and  relics  as  were  supposed  to  be  of  use  in  a 
future  world;  are  we  not  irresistibly  led  to  the  conclusion 
that  this  family  arrived  at  this  land,  and  for  a  season  held 
dominion  over  it  ? 

From  the  analogies  comprised  in  the  early  portion  of  this 
work,  we  also  clearly  see  that  some  ancient  race  came  from 
the  southern  parts  of  Asia,  and,  wandering  southwardly 
through  America,  resumed  their  ancient  customs,  pre- 
served   in   some  degree   their   language,    built   ramparts, 


176  FUGITIVE     ESSAYS. 

pyramids,  and  cities  as  of  old,  and  established  their  primi- 
tive systems  of  mythology  and  astronomy.  History,  too, 
points  out  clearly  the  emigration  from  Babylon  to  Egypt, 
Egypt  to  Caucasus,  and  Caucasus  to  Siberia,  of  a  learned, 
war-like,  and  great  nation.  We  also  know  they  were  driven 
hence,  but  here  we  lose  all  traces  of  them,  and  their  only 
vestiges  are  the  walls  and  ramparts,  tumuli  and  medals,  yet 
discoverable  in  the  latter  country,  where,  since  their  time,  a 
nomadic  race,  and  one  partaking  in  no  degree  of  the  excel- 
lence of  that  driven  away,  has  held  dominion.  From  the 
analogical  evidence  alluded  to,  there  is  some  probabil- 
ity they  went  to  America  from  Siberia,  and  founded  the 
civilized  empire  there  discovered.  It  is  deserving  of  inqui- 
ry, whether  this  probability  can  be  made  a  matter  of  cer- 
tainty. In  order  to  do  this  satisfactorily,  it  were  well  first 
distinctly  to  understand  the  position  and  distance  of  that 
very  narrow  passage  of  water  dividing  Asia  from  America, 
usually  known  as  Behring's  Straits. 

The  practiced) ility,  then,  of  a  passage  across  these  straits 
is  made  certain.  They  are  only  fifty-two  miles  across,  and 
that  distance  is  divided  by  three  islands.  To  establish,  then, 
the  probability  that  emigration  followed  this  route,  the  fol- 
lowing considerations  are  worthy  of  attention  : 

And  here  a  new  piece  of  evidence  unexpectedly 
presents  itself,  consisting  of  a  hieroglyphical  map, 
obtained  in  Mexico  by  Chevalier  Botturini  about  1780. 
The  Chevalier  was  imprisoned,  lost  his  papers  and 
died  in  confinement,  of  a  broken  heart.  Mr.  Bullock, 
formerly  of  London,  now  of  Cincinnati,  afterwards  vis- 
ited Mexico  as  a  traveller  and  antiquary,  and  was  suffici- 
ently fortunate  to  recover  the  "  Aztec  Map"  of  Bot- 
turini, which  is  engraved  and  prefixed  to  Mr.  Dela- 
field's  work,  with  the  remarks  and  notes  of  Botturini 
in  fac  simile. 

If  it  is  authentic, — and  its  correspondence  with 
this  kind  of  Mexican  representation,  the  character  of 
those  who  vouch  for  it,  the  manner  in  which  it  was 


ANTIQUITIES   OP  AMERICA.  177 

obtained,  leave,  it  seems,  no  doubt  upon  that  point, — 
a  most  striking  corroboration  of  the  supposed  jour- 
neyings  of  this  people  is  then  presented. 

The  native  Mexicans  stated  it  to  be  a  chart  delineating 
the  entrance  into  America  of  the  Aztec  race,  and  a  narra- 
tive of  their  slow  and  polemic  journey  southwardly  into 
Anahuac. 

It  commences,  as  they  alleged,  with  the  departure  of 
their  ancestors  from  an  island. 

The  drawing  begins  by  exhibiting  an  enclosure,  intended 
to  designate  the  boundary  of  a  narrow  passage  of  water,  in 
the  centre  of  which  is  an  island,  and  from  this  island  they 
reached  the  main  land  in  a  boat,  as  is  here  portrayed.  On 
the  island  are  six  hieroglyphics  each,  denoting  the  word 
"colli"  or  "  house,"  surrounding  the  emblem  of  a  tumulus 
erected  for  worship.  Beneath  are  two  figures,  male  and 
female,  the  latter  being  distinguished  by  the  two  small  tres- 
ses resembling  horns,  as  in  the  mythological  painting  of  the 
age  of  famine.  Attached  to  the  female  is  an  emblem  used 
heraldically,  and  points  her  out  as  one  of  the  "  children  of 
the  sun," — a  title  claimed  equally  by  the  Hindoos,  ancient 
Egyptians,  and  Peruvian  Incas. 

Here  it  were  well  to  notice  how  distinctly  it  is  shown 
that  the  emigration  into  America  of  this  civilized  family, 
was  from  an  island  in  a  narrow  passage  of  water.  Search 
the  continent  on  all  its  coasts,  and  no  such  place  is  to  be 
found  except  at  Behring's  Straits,  which  have  been  already 
described.  Is  there  not,  then,  additional  proof  in  confirma- 
tion of  the  opinion,  that  this  passage  was  that  which  facili- 
tated the  peopling  of  America  from  the  nations  of  Asia. 

For  a  full  idea  of  this  map,  as  describing  the  pro- 
gress of  the  ancestors  of  the  Mexicans,  we  can  only 
refer  to  the  work  itself. 

It  were  impossible  at  the  present  day  to  exhibit  the  po- 
sitions of  the  various  towns,  which  we  find  delineated   on 


178  FUGITIVE     ESSAYS. 

this  map.  No  doubt  the  traveller  through  the  north-western 
part  of  the  United  States  passes  them  constantly.  Here 
he  meets  the  ruins  of  an  ancient  city,  of  which  nought  re- 
mains, save  its  ramparts  and  "high  places,"  and  there  the 
lofty  tumulus  and  range  of  walls  point  out  to  him  the  spot 
where  sacrifices  were  once  offered,  or  beacon  fires  were  lighted. 
The  names,  however,  and  glory  of  those  places  have  departed, 
and  they  are  an  enigma  to  the  world.  This  map,  no  doubt, 
gives  us  the  appellation  of  the  most  prominent  cities,  but 
to  locate  them  with  certainty  were  beyond  the  power  of  the 
present  age. 

"The  author  concludes  the  book  by  an  abstract 
of  the  points  made  and  the  testimony  offered  in  sup- 
port of  them,  and  at  the  finis  thus  takes  leave  of  his 
readers. 

Do  these  incidents  form  a  well  connected  chain  f 
The  evidence  adduced  is  no  kypotkens.  It  is  based  on 
the  testimony  of  the  most  credible  witnesses,  whose  names 
and  works  have  been  cited  in  their  respective  places.  The 
author  omits  any  argument  on  the  premises,  and  deems  it 
unnecessary.  With  the  simple  statement,  then,  of  recorded 
incident,  he  submits  the  case  to  the  candid  and  courteous 
consideration  of  the  reader;  and  to  him  he  tenders  a  res- 
pectfully and  probably  a  final  farewell. 

We  have  already  extended  this  notice  so  far,  that 
comment  will  render  it  tiresome.  It  is  not  every  po- 
sition of  the  work  that  will  bear  examination  ;  in  fact 
it  would  be  very  strange,  if,  in  the  prosecution  of  an 
inquiry  where  all  ordinary  lights  are  put  out  and  the 
darkness  of  at  least  twenty  centuries  has  succeeded, 
one-half  or  one-fourth  of  our  author's  propositions 
were  not  open  to  doubt.  As  an  instance,  it  is  highly 
improbable  that  a  people  who  knew  the  use  *>\'  iron, 
as  it  seems   the  descendants  of  Cuth  did,  would  ever 


NATURAL  TERRACES  AND  RIDGES  ON  LAKE  ERIE.      179 

lose  it-  The  stone  tumuli  and  walls  of  the  Nortft 
exhibit  no  evidences  of  having  been  wrought,  and  the 
universal  belief  is  contrary  to  the  supposition  that 
this  metal  was  known  here.  But  we  cannot  too  much 
admire  the  soundness  of  manner  and  the  logical  pre- 
cision with  which  the  subject  is  treated.  It  contrasts 
in  this  with  many  similar  productions  of  antiquaries. 
In  endeavoring  to  penetrate  the  obscurity  which 
shrouds  the  transactions  of  the  past,  most  men  become 
bewildered,  and  indulge  in  speculations  which  require 
more  credulity  than  reason  to  be  received  as  truths. 


ON  THE  NATURAL  TERRACES  AND  RIDGES  OF 
THE  COUNTRY  BORDERING  LAKE  ERIE. 

[American  Journal  of  Science,  July,  1850.] 


Through  the  assistance  of  the  engineers,  engaged 
at  various  times  in  surveys  for  railroads  and  canals  in 
Northern  Ohio,  I  have  been  enabled  to  determine  the 
elevation  of  our  "Lake  ridges"  at  numerous  points 
between  the  Pennsylvania  line  and  Sandusky  Bay,  a 
distance  of  130  miles.  I  am  more  particularly  in- 
debted for  these  levels  to  J.  H.  Sergeant.  Esq.,  who 
has  run  several  lines  west  of  Cleveland,  and  to  Messrs. 
Harback  and  Smith,  engineers  for  the  Cleveland, 
Painesville  and  Ashtabula  Railroad  Company. 

When  these  surveys  do  not  cross  the  ridges  and 
terraces,  they  have  still  been  the  basis  upon  which  by 
short  cross  levels,  taken  with  a  pocket  instrument,  I 


180  FUGITIVE  ESSAYS. 

have  obtained  the  elevations ;  and  the  results,  I  think, 
cannot  be  wide  of  the  truth. 

There  may  be  an  extreme  discrepancy  of  three 
feet  among  them,  however,  arising  from  changes  in 
the  surface  of  the  lake,  which  is  the  common  plane  of 
reference. 

My  opinion  has  been  for  many  years,  that  the 
"ridges"  are  not  "ancient  beaches"  of  the  lake, 
although  some  of  the  terraces  may  be.  It  is  indispen- 
sable to  a  beach  that  it  should  at  its  foot  or  water 
line  be  perfectly  horizontal.  The  lake  ridges  are 
not  so  ;  and  this  fact,  taken  with  the  external  form 
which  they  assume,  clearly  gives  them  the  character  of 
sub-marine  deposits. 

There  are  points  on  this  coast  where  there  are  four 
ridges  rising  in  succession  from  the  lake,  as  in  the 
township  of  Ridgeville,  Lorain  County.  In  other 
places  there  are  t hree,  as  from  Geneva  to  Ashtabula ; 
from  Euclid  through  Painesville  to  Geneva,  two ;  and 
from  Cleveland  to  Euclid,  one.  There  are  places 
where  it  is  difficult  to  trace  any;  and  in  others,  as  at 
the  city  of  Cleveland,  where  there  are  two  or  three 
branches  or  divisions  of  one  ridge  for  short  distances, 
all  about  the  same  level  and  liable  to  terminate  sud- 
denly. The  ridges  are  sometimes  upon  the  crest  of  a 
terrace,  and  sometimes  lie,  like  a  highway  of  water- 
washed  sand,  on  the  gently  inclined  surface  of  a  plain 
that  descends  toward  the  lake.  From  a  regular  and 
beautiful  elevated  road-way,  the  ridge  occasionlly 
breaks  into  sand  knolls,  as  at  Avon  Centre,  Lorain 
County  ;  at  Ohio  City,  near  Cleveland,  and  at  Paines- 
ville, Lake  County. 

Where  nothing  to  the  contrary  is  stated,  the  height 
given  is  that  of  the  summit  of  the  ridge,  terrace  or 
knoll.  The  first  ridge,  or  that  nearest  the  lake,  is 
known  in  the  county  as  the  "North  Ridge."     The 


NATURAL  TERRACES  AND   RIDGES   ON   LAKE   ERIE.    181 

others  have  different  names  at  different  places ;  as 
the  "  Middle  Ridge,"  "  Chesnut  Ridge,  "  "  Butternut 
Ridge,"  and  "South  Ridge." 

Elevation  of  the  North  Ridge,  beginning  at  the  Eastern  part  of  the 
Western  Reserve. 

FEET. 

Conneaut,  Ashtabula  Co.,  above  Lake  Erie,  120 
One  mile  west,  ....  145 

Four  miles  east  of  Ashtabula  village,        .     132 
( Base  of  same  for  several  miles,  85  to  95.) 
County  line  between  Lake  and  Ashtabula 

Co.,  northern  slope  of  North  Ridge      .      107 
Eight  miles  west  in  Lake  County,  .       125 

Centreville,  one  mile  north  of  village,       .       105 

Painesville, 120 

Mentor — well  defined  for  two  miles  level,       109 

Wiiloughby, 85 

Seven  miles  east  of  Cleveland,        .     112  to  118 
Three     *       "  "  113  "  118 

Two,       "       "     "         "     at  cross- 
ing of  Cleveland  and  Pittsburgh 

Railroad, 128 

Cleveland  City,  ...  96  to  108 

Ohio  City, 114 

Rockport,  Rocky  River,     .         .         .         .90 
One  mile  west       .         .  .  105,  107  and  126 

Avon,  Lorain  County,  east  of  Centre 

one  mile,         ....  .  84 

u         Lorain  Co.,  Centre  sand  knolls,         105 

Russelton,  Lyme,  Huron  Co.,         .         .         120 

This  table  embraces  a  distance  of  one  hundred  and 
twenty  (120)  miles,  where  it  appears  the  lowest  sum- 
mit is  85  feet,  and  the  highest  145,  showing  a  differ- 
ence in  longitudinal  direction  of  60  feet.     I  have  not 
10 


182  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

visited  all  the  positions  here  given,  but  the  greater 
part  of  them,  and  for  the  rest  am  informed  by  the 
engineers  that  there  is  no  higher  ground  between  the 
ridge  and  the  Lake.  In  all  cases  there  is  a  smooth 
uninterrupted  plain,  on  the  lake  side,  over  which  the 
water  of  the  lake  is  every  where  visible  when  the  for- 
est timber,  which  is  heavy,  is  cleared  away.  It  is 
variously  composed  of  blue  marly  clay,  of  coarse 
drift,  called  "blue"  and  "yellow  hardpan,"  and  of 
coarse  sandy  and  gravelly  drift ;  but  the  soil  is  for 
the  most  part  clayey,  and  wet  between  and  below  the 
ridges.  The  streams,  little  and  great,  cut  deep  and 
steep  gullies  through  the  superficial  deposits,  and  also 
into  the  rocks  below.  From  the  cliff  limestone  at 
Sandusky,  eastward  and  to  the  State  line,  the  superfi- 
cial matter  rests  on  slates,  sandstones  and  shales,  cor- 
responding to  the  Hamilton,  Chemung  and  Fortage 
groups,  of  the  New  York  reports. 

Elevation  of  the  second  Ridge,    called  the  "South"  and  "Middle" 
liidye. 

FKET. 

Near  Kingsville,  Ashtabula  County  (south 

ridge), 152 

Centrevillc, «     •  122 

Two  miles  east  of  Cleveland,         .  "     .  135 

Two  miles  south-west  of  Ohio  City  (middle 

ridge), 149 

Dover  Centre,  12  miles  West  of  Cleveland 

(middle  ridge), 163 

Rockport,  seven  miles  west  of  Cleveland 

(middle  ridge),  .         .         .         .  L30 

Ridgeville,  Lorain  County  (middle  ridge),  .  F>8 

This  ridge  is  more  broken  and  less  continuous  than 
the  first,  or  "north  ridge,"  and  is  in  general  heavier. 
In  Rockport,  Dover,  and  Ridgeville,  on   the  northern 


NATURAL   TERRACES   AND  RIDGES   ON   LAKE   ERIE.    183 

or  lake  slope,  it  is  from  16  to  20  feet  above  its  base 
or  foot,  and  on  the  rear  5  to  10  feet.  Behind  it, 
as  with  all  the  ridges,  is  flat,  swampy  land,  and  small 
rivulets  that  drain  the  low  ground,  running  parallel 
with  the  swell,  to  some  creek,  or  occasionally  break- 
ing through  towards  the  lake.  These  lands  are  very 
rich,  and  with  a  moderate  expense  are  drained  by 
ditches  cut  through  the  ridge.  The  slope  of  the  flat 
lands  between  and  before  the  ridges  is  sufficient  to 
carry  off  all  the  water  in  ditches  that  have  a  free  cur- 
rent. Most  of  this  land  is  coming  under  the  plough 
in  this  manner,  although  it  is  equally  well  calculated 
for  grass.  No  country  can  possess  more  rural  beauty 
than  that  along  these  "  ridge  roads."  The  land  in  a 
longitudinal  view,  is  apparently  level  as  far  as  the 
eye  can  reach ;  and  the  buildings  congregated  along 
the  line  of  the  road  appear  to  be  arrayed  in  curved 
lines,  gently  waving  to  the  right  and  left  as  you  pro- 
ceed. Looking  from  one  of  the  interior  ridges,  which 
are  generally  perceptibly  higher  than  the  next  one 
towards  the  lake,  if  the  timber  is  not  standing,  an- 
other and  rudely  parallel  row  of  farm  houses,  barns, 
orchards,  &c,  is  seen  at  the  distance  of  one,  two,  or 
three  miles ;  the  intermediate  space  perfectly  smooth 
and  cultivated,  and  beyond  lies  the  blue  wTater,  and 
the  horizon. 

The  composition  of  one  ridge  does  not  materially 
differ  from  another.  It  is  formed  of  coarse,  water- 
washed,  yellowish  sand,  or  of  fine  gravel,  principally 
the  comminuted  portions  of  the  adjacent  rocks.  The 
rocky  fragments  are  not  generally  worn  perfectly 
round,  or  oblong,  as  beach  shingle  is,  but  are  more 
flat,  with  worn  edges.  There  are  mingled  with  the 
sandstones  and  shales,  that  compose  this  gravel,  scat- 
tered pieces  of  quartz,  flint,  also  granite,  and  trap- 
pean  rocks,  limestone  and  ironstone. 


184  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

The  basis  of  the  ridge  corresponding  with  the  im- 
pervious clayey  soil  between,  gives .  rise  to  a  great 
many  springs  on  the  lake  or  lower  side ;  and  this 
water  frequently  deposits  bog  iron  ore  that  has  been 
used  extensively  in  furnaces  along  the  lake  shore. 

From  near  Dover  centre,  west  of  Elyria,  and  even 
to  Vermillion  River,  the  second  or  "  middle  ridge  " 
rests  on  a  coarse-grained  sandstone  or  "grindstone 
grit,"  which  farther  east  in  Cuyahoga  County  rises 
above  the  level  of  the  lake  ridges.  Between  the  Black 
and  Vermillion  rivers  I  have  not  succeeded  in  procu- 
ring the  elevations.  Here  they  are  well  developed, 
and  show  more  branches  or  collateral  lines,  extending 
from  one  ridge  to  another,  than  is  observed  farther 
cast. 

By  digging  shallow  wells,  the  inhabitants  find 
water  in  abundance,  and  generally  good.  In  these 
wells,  from  12  to  18  feet  deep,  there  are  thrown  out  as 
a  common  occurrence,  sticks,  timber  and  leaves,  in  a 
decaying  state.  I  have  in  my  cabinet  some  pieces  of 
this  wood,  furnished  by  Dr.  Moore  of  Dover,who  took 
it  from  a  bed  of  carbonaceous  matter  in  a  well  of  his, 
twelve  feet  below  the  surface.  The  well  is  situated 
on  the  middle  ridge,  163  feet  above  the  lake.  Pieces 
of  timber  six  inches  through  have  been  found,  repre- 
sented as  being  water-worn  like  drift-wood.  Those 
in  my  possession  are  solid,  with  a  very  fine  grain  re- 
sembling the  willow. 

Dr.  Moore,  an  intelligent  physician  of  my  ac- 
quaintance, says  he  has  seen  shells  thrown  from  the 
the  bottom  of  wells,  resembling  "perriwinklcs,"  a  corn- 
common  name  for  Lymnea.  Similar  shells  in  frag- 
ments are  said  to  have  been  thrown  from  a  pit  two 
miles  west  of  Cleveland,  on  the  north  ridge.  In  the 
"blue  marly  clay,"  beneath  this  ridge,  I  have  found 
a  Helicina,  and  a  Planorbis,  shells  characteristic  of 


NATURAL  TERRACES  AND  RIDGES   ON   LAKE  ERIE.    185 

the  loess  of  the  Rhine,  and  of  St.  Louis,  and  the 
Wabash  in  Indiana.  The  palreontological  evidence  is 
therefore,  as  far  as  it  goes,  in  favor  of  the  idea  of 
very  recent  and  fresh  water  deposits. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  second  table  of  heights, 
that  the  greatest  difference  is  there  forty-six  feet ; 
and  that  the  summit  of  the  ridge  rises,  from  Rock- 
port  to  Dover,  in  seven  miles,  thirty-three  feet,  but 
from  Dover  to  Ridgeville,  six  miles,  it  is  nearly  level. 

Through  these  two  distances,  making  thirteen  miles, 
the  height  of  the  ridge  above  its  base  is  about  the 
same,  from  sixteen  to  twenty  feet ;  and  consequently 
the  base  has  an  equal  rise  in  a  longitudinal  direction. 
Two  miles  west  of  Ridgeville  Centre,  the  top  of  the 
middle  ridge  has  descended  from  168  to  149  feet. 
The  foot  of  the  north  or  first  ridge,  and  of  the  ter- 
race on  which  it  is  frequently  situated,  approaches 
nearer  to  a  horizontal  line  than  the  ridge  itself,  but 
still  differs  from  a  perfect  level.     It  is  at 

F£ET. 

Conneaut  Creek,        .         .         .         .         .     75 

Tour  miles  east  of  Ashtabula,         .         .    .     85 
Several  miles  west  of     "  .         .         .  .95 

Painesville,  .         .         .         .  .     .     85 

East  of  Willoughby,  several  miles,  .  60  to  65 
Three  miles  west  of  Willoughby,  ...  60 
Euclid  Creek,  12  miles  east  of  Cleveland,  75  to  85 
Seven  miles  east  of  "         .     105 

Two       "       "  "         .     102 

Ohio  City, 75 

Rockport, .70 

Avon, 70 

It  is  not  easy  to  determine  with  precision  where 
the  base  or  foot  of  a  ridge  graduates  into  the  plain  ; 
and  consequently  there  is  not  that  accuracy  in  the 
16* 


186  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

elevations  for  the  base  just  given,  that  we  attain  when 
measuring  the  summit  or  crest.  But  they  are  a  close 
approximation,  and  although  remarkably  uniform,  arc 
by  no  means  equal  as  they  should  be  if  the  base  of 
the  ridge  represented  an  ancient  coast  line  ;  the  great- 
est difference  being  forty-five  feet,  or  about  the  same 
as  the  variation  along  the  top  of  the  second  ridge. 

There  are  but  few  measurements  in  my  reach  of 
the  third  and  fourth  ridges.  In  Huron  County,  south 
of  Ilusselton,  there  are  two  low  swells  of  land  paral- 
lel with  the  shore,  apparently  about  on  a  level  with 
each  other,  and  not  much  above  the  main  ridge  at 
Russelton,  which  is  reported  at  120  feet. 

The  third  ridge,  in  Ridgeville,  Cuyahoga  County, 
is  one  mile  southerly  from  the  second  or  "  middle 
ridge,"  and  is  not  very  prominent,  rising  six  to  ten 
feet  above  the  low  ground.  At  this  place  it  is  186 
feet  above  the  lake,  or  eighteen  feet  above  the  middle 
ridge,  and  eighty-one  above  the  highest  part  of  the 
north  ridge  in  Avon,  five  miles  north. 


The  fourth  or  last  and  highest  well  defined  Ridge. 


FIKT. 


2£  miles  southwest  of  Ohio  City,  .  .  173 
\\  miles  south-east  of  Ridgeville  Centre,  .  203 
West  bank  of  west  fork  of  Black  River, 

Elyria, 195 

Distance  embraced,  twenty-five  miles. 

The  materials  of  the  most  southerly  or  interior 
ridge  are  in  general  coarser  than  in  others,  showing 
a  more  violent  or  less  lasting  aqueous  action.  This  is 
observed  everywhere  at  the  west.  The  more  ele> 
the  drift,  the  more  does  it  exhibit  the  effects  of  strong 
curtentt  in  the  transportation  of  large  pieces  of  rock, 
in  the  shape  of  coarse  gravel.     The  lower  portions, 


NATURAL   TERRACES   AND   RIDGES   ON   LAKE   ERIE.    187 

especially  those  that  lie  near  the  surface  of  the  great 
lakes,  not  only  on  Lake  Erie,  but  on  Michigan  and  Supe- 
rior, are  fine,  argillaceous  or  marly,  laminated,  and 
with  few  pebbles. 

The  terraces  have  not  been  as  much  noticed  as  the 
ridges,  and  consequently  their  height  is  not  as  well 
known.  From  Rockport  to  Avon,  the  north  ridge  is 
upon  the  edge  of  a  terrace,  the  foot  from  seventy 
feet  above  the  lake,  down  to  sixty  feet ;  its  crest  from 
one  hundred  and  five  down  to  eighty-five.  Directly 
opposite  this,  about  five  miles  more  inland,  a  conside- 
rable portion  of  the  fourth  or  south  ridge,  (known  as 
the  "  Butternut,")  is  also  on  a  terrace  of  about  twenty 
feet,  on  its  northern  face;  in  fact  all  the  ridges  par- 
take of  the  nature  of  terraces,  in  places  ;  the  north- 
ern slope  being  generally  the  longest.  But  the 
geological  composition  of  the  terrace  on  which  the 
ridge  rests  is  different,  and  either  a  rock  or  a  drift  of 
more  compact  and  resisting  kind. 

Between  Newburg  and  Euclid,  nine  miles,  the  north- 
ern face  of  the  terrace  is  very  bold,  its  base  from  120 
to  150  feet,  and  its  crest  200  to  225  feet.  It  is  here 
composed  of  fine-grained  sandstone  (Waverly),  and 
blue  and  red  shales.  East  of  Euclid,  the  terrace 
sometimes  divides  into  two,  the  lower  one  supporting 
the  north  ridge.  It  is  the  same  for  several  miles  east 
of  Willoughby,  the  crest  of  the  first  or  lowest  terrace 
being  about  one  hundred  feet  and  its  base  seventy  to 
eighty  feet,  and  formed  of  blue  hardpan,  resting  on 
shales.  In  Erie  County,  on  the  line  of  the  Mansfield 
railroad,  it  is  composed  of  cliff  limestone  supporting 
black  slate ;  its  base  about  130,  and  its  summit  180  feet. 
It  will  be  interesting  now  to  compare  the  eleva- 
tions above  given,  for  ridges  in  Western  Ohio,  with 
those  of  the  great  lakes  in  other  States.  In  Michigan, 
at  the  east  line  of  Washington  County  east  of  Ann 


188  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

Arbor,  is  a  well-defined  ridge  running  nearly  north 
and  south,  whose  summit  is  140  feet  above  Detroit 
River,  at  Detroit.  Around  Monroe,  in  "Wa yne  County, 
Michigan,  are  some  irregular  sand  ridges,  not  more 
than  thirty  feet.  They  are  also  visible  on  the  north 
shore  of  Lake  Erie,  in  the  flat  country  between  Brie 
and  Huron;  their  elevation  is  not  known,  but  they 
are  apparently  as  high  as  200  feet. 

Mr.  Roy,  a  Canadian  engineer,  has  made  a  section 
across  the  ridges  back  of  Toronto  to  Lake  Simcoe,  as 
reported  by  Mr.  Lyell,  and  has  given  their  respective 
elevations  as  follows : 

FEET. 

No.  1. — one  mile  north  of  Toronto,  20  to 
30  feet  high — base  above  Lake 
Ontario,   .  .     108 

No.  2.— 2J  miles  from  Toronto,  50  to  70  feet 

high — base  above  Lake  Ontario,    208 

No.  3. — 5  miles  from  lake — 10  feet  high — 

summit, 288 

Five  other  ridges  or  terraces  are  given  by  Mr. 
Hall,  in  the  geology  of  the  4th  district  of  New  York; 
also  on  the  authority  of  Mr.  Hoy,  referring  appa- 
rently to  the  elevation  of  their  base. 

FEET. 

No.  4. — above  Lake  Ontario,   .   .   .  308 

"  5.   "    "     "    .    .   .  .  344 

"  6.   "    "     "  420 

"7.   "   "    "'..'.!  680 

"  8.   "    "    "  .  7H2 

Mr.  Lyell  observed  eleven  ridges  between  the  lake 
and  the  summit  for  Lake  Simcoe,  the  elevation  of  the 
eleventh,  or  last  and  highest,  corresponding  with  N<>.  7. 
of  the  New  York  Report.  The  elevation  of  Lake 
Eric  above  Ontario  is  generally  stated  at  332  feet,  so 


NATURAL   TERRACES   AND  RTDGES   ON   LAKE   ERIE.    189 

that  the  three  first  ridges  or  terraces,  in  rear  of  To- 
ronto, are  below  the  surface  of  Lake  Erie. 

Mr.  Barrett,  a  New  York  engineer,  furnished  Mr. 
Hall  with  the  height  of  some  points  on  the  Lockport 
ridge,  south  of  Lake  Ontario  and  opposite  Toronto. 
The j  are  as  follows  : 

FEET. 

At  Lockport, 158 

Middleport,  10  miles  east,  .         .     .  185 

Albion,  Orleans  County,  .  .         .  188 

Brockport,  Monroe  County,  .         .     .  188 

None  of  these  correspond  in  height  with  those  on 
the  north  shore,  as  they  should  do  if  they  were  the 
result  of  littoral  action  at  a  beach,  for  the  surface  of 
the  water  would  be  level.  If  we  suppose  them  to 
have  been  formed  in  that  manner,  when  the  water 
stood  at  the  base  of  a  ridge,  the  rivers  must  have  dis- 
charged at  the  same  level.  Here  should,  on  that  hy- 
pothesis, be  found  deltas,  and  evidence  of  bays  or 
lagoons.  The  waters  having  settled  away,  at  the  pres- 
ent period  the  streams  discharge  at  a  lower  level, 
their  channels  being  worn  deeper  and  larger,  cutting 
through  the  ridges  and  terraces  that  lie  between  the 
present  and  the  ancient  level.  If  the  ancient  mouth 
was  at  a  point  different  from  that  where  the  present 
channel  cuts  a  ridge,  it  should  be  visible  in  the  pres- 
ent form  of  the  ridge.  If  it  was  at  the  same  point, 
there  should  be  marks  of  such  action  as  always  ac- 
companies the  meeting  of  running  currents  with  dead 
water.  But  our  streams  appear  to  cut  the  ridges  as 
though  they  were  barriers  preexisting,  and  broken 
through  by  the  current. 

Terraces,  composed  of  the  rocks  or  other  general 
deposits  of  a  country,  appear  to  be  much  stronger 
proof  of   ancient   shores    than  limited   sand  ridges. 


190  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

When  we  rise  above  240  feet  from  Lake  Erie,  the 
well  defined  terraces  disappear ;  and  from  that  line  to 
600  to  650  feet,  the  general  elevation  of  the  table 
land  in  north-eastern  Ohio,  the  surface  presents  a  con- 
fused arrangement  of  heavy  drift,  covering  the  rocks 
at  various  depths,  in  long  massive  knolls,  without 
ranges  or  parallelism.  Towards  the  west,  the  summits 
of  the  lake  streams  are  lower,  and  the  present  surface 
of  north-western  Ohio  and  northern  Indiana,  of  Illi- 
nois, Michigan,  New  York  and  Canada  West,  with 
much  of  Wisconsin  and  Iowa,  would  be  submerged  by 
a  sea  rising  250  feet  above  Lake  Erie,  or  815  above 
the  ocean. 

The  Wabash  and  Maumee  summit,  at  Fort  Wayne, 
Indiana,  is  246  feet  above  Lake  Erie.  The  summit 
between  the  waters  of 

FEET  ABOVE  LAKK  ERIE. 

Saginaw  Bay  and  of  Lake  Michigan,  .  .  108 
Summit  between  Pishtaka  and  Rock  River 

in  Illinois,    ......     218 

Lake  Winnebago, 167 

Summit  between  Lake   Ontario  and  Lake 

Simcoe,  Canada,  ....     197 

Mouth  of  St.  Peter's  River,  Fort  Snelling, 

Minesota,     ......     179 

Missouri  River  at  Fort  Leavenworth,  west 

line  of  State  of  Missouri,         .         .      .     181 

If,  therefore,  the  relative  level  of  the  land  was  the 
same  as  now,  when  the  diluvial  sea  existed  at  high 
levels,  its  extent  must  have  been  very  great,  at  the 
supposed  stage  of  250  feet  above  Lake  Erie.  At  this 
or  any  other  supposable  stage,  if  it  remained  station- 
ary long  enough  to  form  cliffs  and  banks  at  onephuv, 
it  would  produce  the  same  effects,  in  kind  if  not  in 
degree,  at  another;  and  we  should  bo  able  to  trace 


NATURAL   TERRACES   AND   RIDGES   ON   LAKE   ERIE.    191 

beaches  or  shores  over  all  the  vast  west,  for  such  cliffs 
are  due  to  the  action  of  winds  and  waves,  always  in 
operation  on  bodies  of  water.  But  under-surface  cur- 
rents are  not  universal,  or  in  such  general  operation 
as  to  form  everywhere  bars  and  longitudinal  banks 
or  spits.  If  the  Atlantic  Ocean  should  suddenly  set- 
tle one  hundred  feet,  or  any  other  distance,  would 
there  not  remain  a  distinct  shore,  well  defined  and 
traceable  its  entire  length  ?  At  the  mouth  of  some 
rivers  and  bays  or  inlets  would  be  seen  limited  sand 
ridges,  their  bases  upon  an  exact  level.  On  the  an- 
cient bed  of  the  sea  opposite  sandy  coasts,  like  North 
Carolina  and  New  Jersey,  would  appear  long  and  nar- 
row and  rudely  parallel  ridges,  of  such  materials  as 
are  easily  moved  by  currents,  that  would  not  be  level 
longitudinally. 

The  evidence  of  the  existence  of  ancient  currents 
acting  upon  the  drift,  regularly  and  irregularly,  is 
abundant.  They  have  acted  at  all  elevations,  as  well 
on  the  highest  lands  in  Ohio,  at  1350  feet  above  the 
tide,  as  at  the  sources  of  the  Mississippi,  1680  feet. 
The  evidence  is  that  they  were  powerful,  and  in  gene- 
ral erratic  or  irregular  and  fitful.  Such  currents 
would  not  leave  ridges,  but  rounded  elevations.  For 
this  discussion  it  is  immaterial  whether  the  relative 
change  in  the  level  of  land  and  water  was  due  to  sub- 
sidence or  upheaval.  The  change  has  taken  place, 
and  before  that  period  there  were  at  great  depths  cur- 
rents of  water,  both  gentle  and  strong,  giving  form 
to  the  present  exposed  surface  of  the  earth. 

It  is  to  this  wide-spread  power  that  we  must  resort, 
to  explain  most  of  the  diluvial  phenomena  which  are 
observed.  What  can  be  reasonably  assigned  to  the 
wearing  action  of  waves  along  a  coast  line  is  limited 
and  not  pervading;  not  an  universal,  but  a  local,  tar- 
dy, and  inefficient  geological  agent. 


THE  AGE  OF  THE  MATERIAL  Ux\IVEHSE. 

[Western  Quarterly  Review,  1849,  Vol.  I,  No.  3  ] 


Until  within  thirty  years  the  general  belief  of 
mankind  was,  that  the  earth  had  been  in  existence 
only  about  six  thousand  years.  The  researches  of 
geologists,  and  the  astonishing  discoveries  of  astron- 
omers have,  within  that  time,  entirely  changed  the 
opinions  of  those  conversant  with  natural  philosophy, 
and  the  natural  sciences,  on  this  point. 

Men  who  have  become  proficients  in  the  physical 
sciences  now  agree,  the  world  over,  that  our  earth 
and  the  solar  system,  and  the  yet  unfathomed  "stellar 
world,"  have  existed  hundreds  of  thousands  of  years. 

The  great  past  duration  of  the  universe  is  an  idea 
that  new  developments  go  continually  to  increase, 
and  not  to  diminish,  so  that  we  may  safely  estimate 
its  age  at  millions  of  years,  instead  of  hundreds  of 
thousands. 

I  shall  exhibit  some  of  the  facts  upon  which  this 
belief  is  founded. 

I  may  not  succeed  in  causing  so  difficult  a  subject 
to  be  comprehended  at  once,  but  may  give  some  as- 
sistance in  your  future  contemplations  upon  it. 

The  periods  of  time  with  which  it  is  necessary  to 
deal  are  so  vast,  compared  with  our  own  earthly  exist- 
ence or  even  compared  with  the  historic  periods,  that 
it  is  only  by  the  use  of  our  imagination  that  we  can  em-" 


AGE   OP  THE   UNIVERSE.  193 

brace  the  idea.  Just  as  in  Astronomy  we  are  well 
convinced  of  the  immense  distance  of  the  stars,  but 
do  not  realize  by  comparison  the  length  of  a  line  ex- 
tending from  the  earth  to  them,  or  even  from  the  sun 
to  the  earth,  95,000,000  miles. 

The  distances  which  we  travel  on  the  earth,  and 
over  which  ships  sail  on  the  ocean,  being  at  most  only 
24,000  miles — or  the  circumference  of  the  earth — be- 
come as  nothing  when  applied  to  the  heavenly  bodies. 
The  evidence  of  our  senses  in  reference  to  space  must 
be  left  behind,  and  the  conclusions  of  the  mind  must 
be  received  as  true. 

I  doubt  whether  any  individual  has  a  rational  con- 
ception of  the  length  of  a  line  reaching  to  our  moon, 
the  nearest  heavenly  body,  and  distant  only  about  ten 
times  the  circumference  of  the  earth. 

In  contemplating  the  existence  of  the  universe, 
we  must  accustom  ourselves  to  grasp  long  periods  of 
time,  as  in  astronomy  we  do  great  extension  of  lines 
and  spaces. 

There  is  another  difficulty  in  the  discussion  of  the 
longevity  of  the  earth,  which  arises  from  our  prior 
convictions  and  opinions,  and  particularly  from  a  fear 
on  the  part  of  some,  and  a  belief  on  the  part  of  oth- 
ers, that  the  doctrine  here  taught  is  contrary  to  the 
Holy  Scriptures. 

This  branch  of  the  subject  is  purely  theological, 
and  one  the  discussion  of  which  belongs  to  theologians, 
and  not  to  philosophers.  But  it  is  so  interesting,  and 
the  apprehensions  of  Christians  it  seems  to  me  so  un- 
founded, that  I  am  tempted  to  digress  a  little  for  the 
purpose  of  noticing  its  connection  with  revelation. 

And  in  the  outset  I  should  observe — as  I  shall 

show  before  I  close — that  the  science  of  astronomy 

presents  far  greater  difficulties  to  be  reconciled  than 

that  of  geology,  and  the  arguments  in  favor  of  the 

17 


194  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

extreme  past  duration  of  our  planet,  drawn  from  our 
knowledge  of  the  stars,  are  the  most  conclusive  of  all. 

And  I  should  add,  moreover,  that  among  the  ge- 
ologists and  astronomers  of  my  acquaintance,  and 
those  with  whose  personal  history  I  am  acquainted, 
there  are  proportionally  more  devout  and  pious  men 
than  there  are  among  civilized  mankind  at  large,  or 
the  secular  professions. 

The  arguments  which  have  been  drawn  from  ge- 
ology, unfavorable  to  the  truths  of  Christianity,  have 
originated  not  with  learned  men.  I  know  of  no  ex- 
ception among  the  living  geologists,  of  a  man  who 
does  not  believe  the  earth  to  be  more  than  an  hundred 
thousand  years  old ;  yet  at  least  one  half  of  them  are 
exemplary,  professing  Christians,  who  assert  that  their 
confidence  in  the  scripture  revelations  is  unimpaired. 

There  was  issued  in  England  a  few  years  since,  a 
work  which  attracted  much  attention,  entitled  "  Ves- 
tiges of  Creation."  This  book  made  pretensions  to 
being  an  exponent  of  modern  geology.  But  geolo- 
gists of  reputation  in  America  and  Europe  regard  the 
author's  ideas  as  in  the  main  contradictory,  and  not 
in  harmony  with  science — the  vagaries  of  a  diseased 
or  a  half-instructed  mind. 

It  is  an  exemplification  of  the  words  of  the  old 
English  poet  and  philosopher,  that  a  "  little  learning 
is  a  dangerous  thing." 

I  know  of  no  standard  work  on  geology  that  at- 
tempts to  throw  discredit  on  revelation,  although 
nearly  all  of  them  date  the  creation  of  the  world  tar 
back  of  the  historic  period  of  6,000  years. 

The  first  and  the  most  popular  difficulty  arises 
from  confounding  the  era  of  the  appearance  of  man 
upon  the  earth  with  the  crpation  of  the  world.  There 
is  no  geological  evidence,  so  far  as  I  know,  showing 
that  man  has  been  more  than  6,000  years  in  existence. 


AOE   OF   THE    UNIVERSE.  195 

But  the  fact  of  a  long  prior  existence  of  the  earth 
itself  is  a  separate  idea,  and  should  not  be  mixed  with 
the  peopling  of  the  world  by  human  beings. 

There  has  been  a  great  deal  written  upon  the 
question  of  reconciling  the  Mosaic  account  of  the  cre- 
ation with  the  present  state  of  science.  The  qualifi- 
cations necessary  to  discuss  this  question  are  possessed 
by  few  men  living,  if  they  are  by  any.  It  requires  a 
mind  free  from  every  external  and  improper  bias. 
The  man,  or  the  men  who  enter  upon  the  discussion, 
must  be  linguists  of  the  first  class,  to  scan  the  Mosaic 
account  thoroughly  in  all  the  languages  through  which 
it  has  passed,  from  the  Hebrew  to  the  English. 

They  should  be  masters  of  modern  science,  and 
here  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  progress  of  learning  is 
yet  such  as  to  render  it  safe  to  make  a  final  conclu- 
sion of  the  matter. 

The  translators  of  the  Septuagint  had  only  the 
astronomical  light  of  the  era  of  Ptolemy.  The 
translators  of  the  English  Bible  were  a  little  better 
informed,  but  even  then  the  Copernican  system  was 
not  universally  received.  Great  strides  in  scientific 
discovery  have  been  made  since  the  days  of  James 
the  Second. 

But  I  have  not  forgotten  my  resolution  to  express 
some  of  the  modern  views  entertained  upon  the  sup- 
posed discrepancy.  It  will  be  of  course  principally  a 
repetition  of  what  may  be  seen  by  you  all  in  publica- 
tions upon  geology,  theology,  and  astronomy. 

The  first  chapter  of  Genesis  does  not  appear  to 
have  been  intended  as  a  piece  of  natural  history,  and 
should  not  be  regarded  as  such.  There  is  no  doubt 
but  he  who  made  all  things  knows  all  about  them,  and 
could  give  us,  if  he  chose,  at  once  the  laws  of  matter 
and  the  most  perfect  history  of  the  manner  in  which 
they  were  originated.     In  our  researches  we  should 


196  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

first  divide  the  act  of  creation  from  the  acts  of  change 
to  which  matter  has  been  subject  since  its  creation. 
The  absolute  creation  of  matter  is  an  idea  beyond  our 
comprehension. 

The  prevailing  theory  is  that  the  first  or  primeval 
state  of  the  planets  was  that  of  a  vitrified  mass,  which 
would  naturally  become  round  by  motion  on  its  axis. 
l>ut  how  that  mass  was  brought  into  being  is  not  as 
yet  a  subject  of  human  speculation,  it  is  referred  di- 
rectly to  the  incomprehensible  power  of  God.  The 
observations  of  man  have  disclosed  abundant  evidence 
of  change  in  the  condition  of  our  plauet ;  and  the  laws, 
the  number,  and  the  nature  of  these  changes,  consti- 
tute the  science  of  geology. 

I  conceive  it  is  only  the  first  verse  of  the  first 
chapter  of  Genesis  that  may  be  truly  said  to  refer  to 
the  creation,  technically  speaking : 

"  In  the  beginning  God  created  the  heavens  and 
the  earth." 

The  next  verse  describes  the  condition  of  the 
earth  after  creation. 

"  And  the  earth  was  without  form  and  void,  and 
darkness  was  upon  the  face  of  the  deep,"  &c. 

The  succeeding  verses  are  chiefly  taken  up  by  a 
statement  of  the  changes  introduced  in  the  earth, 
which  had  already  been  made. 

The  dry  land  appears — oceans  of  water  result 
from  the  emergence  of  the  land — plants  spring  up — 
the  waters  bring  forth  things  that  have  life.  Here  is 
past  creation,  and  past  modification  of  what  was  cre- 
ated. The  animals,  plants,  and  fishes  were  originated  ; 
the  mountains  and  seas  were  the  consequence  of  a  rise 
of  the  solid  materials  of  the  globe,  that  is,  its  r 
portions,  thus  driving  its  waters  into  the  great  prime- 
val valleys  forming  oceans  and  lesser  bodies  of 
water. 


AGE   OF   THE   UNIVERSE.  197 

But  I  do  not  think  there  is  an  attempt  in  the  first 
chapter  of  Genesis — or  anywhere  in  the  Bible — to 
give  a  full,  clear,  and  detailed  description  of  these  stu- 
pendous events. 

The  revelation  is  a  moral  and  not  a  scientific  one; 
what  there  is  in  it  of  science,  history,  or  political 
law,  is  incidental  to  the  morality  and  religion  there 
communicated,  and  goes  no  farther.  What  is  purely 
secular  is  merely  illustrative,  and  to  be  understood 
must  have  been  made  in  terms  in  use,  and  in  accord- 
ance with  the  state  of  intelligence  of  the  people 
to  whom  it  was  addressed  ;  if  not,  it  was  to  them  no 
revelation — it  would  be  merely  nothing.  The  He- 
brews had  seen  by  night  a  revolving  heaven  filled  with 
stars,  and  had  so  often  watched  these  mysterious  ob- 
jects as  they  presented  themselves  anew  each  evening 
that  they  had  discovered  some  which  had  a  relative 
motion  among  the  others. 

Here  their  knowledge  of  the  planets  and  the  plan- 
etary system  ended.  The  people  of  Israel  could 
neither  read  nor  write.  The  priests  were  the  de- 
positories of  knowledge,  and  they  were  not  much 
in  advance  of  the  people.  What  did  Moses,  their 
prophet  and  legislator,  know  of  astronomy  or  of 
geology  ?  Was  he  inspired  in  matters  of  science 
above  the  learning  of  his  day  ?  There  is  no  evidence 
that  he  was.  Had  that  been  the  case,  it  must  have 
been  with  reference  to  the  moral  revelations  he  was  to 
make  to  his  people,  and  in  them  we  should  have  found 
expressions  relating  to  science.  WTas  such  a  revela- 
tion necessary  to  sustain  and  support  the  moral  and 
religious  law  ?  If  it  was,  how  much  of  it  ?  If  it  was 
regarded  by  the  Deity  as  of  consequence  to  his  pur- 
poses, that  mankind  should  be  provided  with  an  easy 
way  to  secular  knowledge,  would  he  not  have  intro- 
duced such  subjects  in  his  revelation  ? 
17* 


198  FUGITIVE    KsSbtB. 

If  it  was  necessary  for  his  prophets  to  possess  this 
knowledge,  he  would  have  imparted  it  to  them,  and 
they,  recording  his  communications,  must  inevitably 
have  made  use  of  expressions  that  would  show  us  that 
they  had  this  knowledge. 

The  result  would  have  been  that  a  moral  subject 
would  at  one  time  require  or  connect  itself  with  math- 
ematics, at  another  with  natural  philosophy,  then  with 
chemistry,  and  so  on  through  the  range  of  the  sciences 
and  the  arts,  not  merely  as  known  to  us,  but  as  shall 
be  known  through  the  progress  of  time,  and  as  fully 
as  known  to  the  Divine  mind. 

Mankind  would  not  have  been  in  ignorance,  till  the 
days  of  Copernicus,  that  the  sun  occupies  the  centre 
of  our  system,  and  that  the  earth  does  not  stand  still 
in  space. 

It  would  not  have  remained  for  Kepler  to  show 
that  the  planets  describe  equal  spaces  of  their  orbits, 
in  equal  times  nor  to  teach  that  the  other  great  law 
of  astronomy,  that  the  cubes  of  their  times  of  revolu- 
tion are  proportional  to  the  squares  of  their  mean  dis- 
tances ;  Archimides  could  have  developed  no  new 
ideas  on  mechanical  forces ;  Sir  Humphrey  Davy  no 
discoveries  in  chemistry ;  Franklin,  in  electricity  ;  or 
Morse,  in  telegraphs.  We  should  have  known  of  the 
existence  of  the  planet  Uranius  before  the  days  of 
Herschel ;  of  Neptune,  before  Leverrier  and  Adams  ; 
we  should  probably  know  whether  there  is  beyond 
the  orbit  of  Neptune  more  than  4,000,000,000  of 
miles  from  our  sun,  another  member,  or  other  mem- 
bers of  the  solar  system. 

But  these  developments,  not  forming  any  part  of 
the  written  revelation,  I  conclude  that  a  knowledge  of 
the  sciences  or  of  natural  history  was  purposely  kept 
from  the  books  of  revelation. 

A  query  might  be  started,  whether  there  are  not 


AGE   OF   THE   UNIVERSE.  193 

in  fact  some  such  matters  contained  in  the  sacred  re- 
cords ?  and  whether,  if  there  are,  they  must  not  agree 
with  true  science  ?  So  far  as  I  am  acquainted,  I 
know  of  no  subject  purely  scientific — no  phrases  that 
appear  to  be  intended  merely  to  give  such  information 
upon  the  pages  of  the  Bible.  If  knowledge  of  this 
kind  is  anywhere  advanced,  it  should,  when  fully  un- 
derstood, certainly  correspond  with  our  ideas  on  the 
same  subject,  where  we  understand  it  correctly  and 
fully. 

The  divine  reason  and  human  reason  are  the  same 
mental  perception  ;  and  when  humanity  can  reach  the 
truth,  its  ideas  correspond  to  those  of  the  Deity  on 
the  same  subject. 

Thus  the  mathematical  principle,  that  the  sum  of 
the  squares  of  a  right-angled  triangle  are  equal  to  the 
square  of  the  hypothenuse,  is  an  idea  comprehensible 
alike  to  the  divine  and  the  human  intellect.  So  with 
the  property  of  gravitation  ;  with  Kepler's  astronomi- 
cal laws ;  chemical  affinity ;  geological  principles, 
and  all  other  knowledge.  Our  powers  are  limited  to 
the  discovery  of  God's  laws ;  they  are  not  equal  to 
the  origin  of  laws  in  nature  or  science.  When  the 
two  grades  of  intellect  unite,  in  the  understanding  of 
a  subject,  human  reason,  as  far  as  it  sees  correctly, 
must  be  the  same  in  quality,  though  infinitely  less  in 
quantity,  as  divine  reason.  The  difference  is,  that 
we  are  continually  subject  to  error  ;  he  is  not:  we  are 
always  learning  ;  he  never  learns. 

It  is  on  such  grounds  that  I  regard  the  Bible  as 
forming  no  part  of  our  "  natural  history,"  or  of  our 
science ;  and  that  the  first  chapter  of  Genesis  should 
not  be  regarded  as  a  description  or  an  attempt  at  a 
description  of  the  mode  or  manner  of  the  creation. 

For  such  a  purpose  it  is  too  meagre,  too  confused, 
and  too  blind  ;  it  would  have  required,  not  merely  one 


200  FUGITIVE     ESSAYS. 

short  chapter,  but  many  large  volumes,  to  disclose  as 
much  respecting  the  act  of  forming  and  peopling  the 
solar  system,  as  we  already  know. 

The  most  that  can  be  drawn  from  that  chapter,  as 
bearing  upon  the  modus  operandi,  is  a  succinct,  un- 
qualified statement — brief  as  it  is  sublime — that  in 
some  remote,  undiscovered  period  God  made  the  uni- 
verse. 

After  the  lapse  of  an  indefinite  period,  a  succes- 
sion of  changes  and  modifications  took  place,  accom- 
panied by  additional  acts  of  creation  which  may  still 
be  going  on.  The  intervals  between  these  periods 
are  unequal  and  indefinite,  or  as  yet  not  known. 

The  most  learned  theological  commentators  teach 
us  that  the  Hebrew  word,  translated  day,  should  be 
regarded  as  meaning  epoch,  era,  period,  generation, 
or  time,  and  not  a  natural  day  of  twenty-four  hours; 
nor  does  it  mean  periods  of  equal  duration.  This 
construction  is  evidently  necessary  to  accord  with  ob- 
served facts.  The  loA\er  animals  lived,  died;  and 
whole  species  disappeared  and  ceased  to  exist  before 
others  were  created  or  brought  into  being.  They 
could  not,  therefore,  have  been  made  simultaneously 
in  the  same  day,  unless  they  were  also  cut  off  instantly, 
and  new  forms  of  life  put  in  their  place  through  num- 
berless repetitions.  This  would  be  a  mere  act  of  cre- 
ative sport,  without  design  or  beneficial  purpoe 
act  of  which  no  one  supposes  the  Creator  capable. 

Dr.  John  Pye  Smith  says,  the  first  verse  refers  to 
an  "indefinite  epoch  in  past  eternity  ;"  also  that  the 
term  translated  "created'1  maybe  used  for  the  words 
"  adjusted  "  and  "  finished." 

Dr.  Jenks  says,  the  Hebrew  word  "erets,"  or 
earth,  "implies  everything  relating  to  the  terraqueo, 
serial  globe;  that  is  all  that  belongs  to  the  solid  and 
llu id  parts  of  our  world,  and  its  surrounding  atmos- 
phere." 


AGE   OP  THE   UNIVERSE.  201 

The  expression  "  And  the  evening  and  the  morn- 
ing were  the  first  day  "  has  been  rendered  "  and  there 
was  evening  and  there  was  morning  the  first  day," 
and  also,  "  and  there  was  dusk  and  there  was  dawn 
the  first  day." 

I  said  the  description  was  too  confused  to  convey 
a  clear  idea  of  the  process,  taking  the  order  of  nar- 
ration for  the  order  of  events. 

There  is  day  and  night  spoken  of  before  the  firm- 
ament, and  before  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars.  In  the 
original  the  firmament  is  not  created,  but  made  to  ap- 
pear. On  the  sixth  day  man  and  woman  are  said  to 
have  been  created,  male  and  female.  But  in  the  sec- 
ond chapter,  the  creation  of  man,  the  formation  of 
the  garden  of  Eden,  and  afterwards  the  creation  of 
woman,  appear  to  have  taken  place,  if  it  was  in  the 
order  as  mentioned  after  the  seventh,  or  day  of  rest. 
This  want  of  order  and  perspicuity  is  common  to  an- 
cient writings  and  to  the  Scriptures,  where  rhetoric 
and  the  grammatical  structure  of  sentences  give  way 
to  the  native  vigor  of  untutored  and  imaginative  wri- 
ters. 

Plants  are  said  to  have  been  created  before  ani- 
mals and  the  inhabitants  of  the  seas.  As  to  land 
plants,  the  researches  of  geology,  in  its  present  state, 
give  a  contrary  order,  and  show  us  that  the  mollusca 
existed  long  before  these  vegetables,  but  future  inves- 
tigations may  show  facts  to  change  the  received  opin- 
ions of  geologists.  Not  long  since  marine  plants  were 
supposed  to  be  more  recent  than  the  mollusca,  but  the 
New  York  geologists  found  and  recently  published- 
sketches  of  marine  vegetables  in  the  Potsdam  sand- 
stone, the  oldest  rock  of  the  New  York  system. 

I  present  these  apparent  discrepancies  to  show 
that  there  are  difficulties  in  reconciling  the  various 
parts  of  the  narration  to  itself,   considered  as  a  piece 


202  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

of  natural  history.  And  to  enforce  my  belief  that  it 
was  not  so  intended.  Any  enlightened  human  mind 
which  should  understand  such  a  memoir,  would  study 
to  make  it  clear,  orderly  and  consistent,  much  more 
the  divine  mind. 

Geology,  however,  discloses  a  good  general  resem- 
blance in  the  order  of  the  changes  and  creations  to 
those  set  forth  in  Genesis. 

Almost  the  lowest  fossil  remains,  which  must  of 
necessity  be  almost  the  oldest  in  the  order  of  chron- 
ology, have  eyes  fitted  to  receive  light.  This  is  the 
case  with  trilobites  found  low  down  in  the  "  silurian 
system,"  though  the  lenses  composing  the  eye  are 
constructed  of  great  power,  adapted  to  a  very  dim 
light.  These  creatures  crawled  on  the  bottom  of  an- 
cient seas,  and  of  course  were  made  after  the  creation 
of  light,  or  their  eyes  would  be  useless.  Light  must 
also  have  preceded  the  growth  of  plants. 

Fossil  remains  prove  that  animals  inhabiting  the 
waters  were  in  existence  before  those  that  walk  on 
land. 

The  fossil  elephant,  mastodon,  buffalo,  megatheri- 
um, &c,  are  more  recent  than  the  fossil  saurians,  or 
water  lizards,  which  were  of  great  size. 

Geology  establishes  the  position  that  the  first  con- 
dition of  this  planet  is   aptly  described  by  the  Si 
ment  that  it  was  "without  form  and  void." 

The  crystalline  rocks,  sometimes  called  the  "  prim- 
itive rocks,"  such  as  granite,  sienite,  and  gneiss,  arc 
regarded  as  the  cooled  crust  or  exterior  of  the  earth. 
its  central  portions  still  remaining  in  a  liquid  or  vol- 
canic state.  The  surface  of  the  earth  before  the  "sedi- 
mentary" or  stratified  rocks  were  formed  would  present 
the  appearance  of  confused  heaps  of  fractured  angular 
primitive  rocks,  now  represented  by  the  peaks  Ot  the 
Andes,  the   Rocky  Mountains,   the    Granite  Hills  of 


AGE  OP  THE    UNIVERSE.  203 

New  England,  the  Alps,  and  the  Himalayas.  In  the 
"Plutonic  "  or  primitive  rocks,  there  are  no  fossils  ; 
no  evidences  that  during  the  long  interval  between  the 
time  when  our  planet  took  its  place  in  the  solar  sys- 
tem, and  the  period  when  the  sedimentary  rocks  were 
deposited,  any  living,  moving,  or  breathing  thing  ex- 
isted upon  the  earth. 

A  change  then  took  place,  and  a  new  class  of  rocks 
began  to  be  formed  by  the  agency  of  water.  Those 
rocks  which  we  call  the  "sedimentary  "  rest  upon  the 
Plutonic,  and  contain  everywhere  the  preserved  bodies 
of  living  organized  creatures.  Those  that  are  first  in 
point  of  time,  or  lowest  in  the  system,  are  a  small 
shell-fish  called  the  "  Lingula."  As  we  ascend  in  the 
geological  structure,  the  fossil  remains  become  more 
numerous,  and  new  forms  of  animal  life  constantly 
appear,  such  as  fishes,  reptiles,  and  birds. 

Again,  geology  teaches  that  the  animals  adapted  to 
the  use  of  man,  and  at  the  same  time  to  live  on  dry 
land,  did  not  come  into  being  till  the  geological  chan- 
ges were  nearly  complete.  It  shows  that  they  were 
made  near  the  last  act  of  creation,  and  either  contem- 
porary or  closely  connected  with  the  production  of 
man.  The  remains  of  the  ox,  horse,  elk,  deer,  &c, 
are  found  in  the  last  deposit  of  all  the  "drift,"  or  as 
it  is  sometimes  called  the  "diluvium."  This  is  the 
mixture  of  sand,  gravel,  bowlders,  clay,  and  earth, 
which  covers  the  surface  of  the  indurated  rocks.  But 
even  here  no  remains  of  man  are  found  of  a  fossil  char- 
acter, showing  that  he  appeared  after  all  the  organic 
changes  had  been  made,  and  the  surface  of  the  earth 
had  taken,  in  general,  its  present  form. 

Thus  it  may  be  shown  that  geology  finds  in  the 
progress  of  the  creative  acts,  an  order  corresponding 
in  a  general  way,  with  the  Mosaic  Books,  and  that  the 
descrepancies  are  not  greater  than  would  be  anticipated 


204  FUGITIVE  ESSAYS. 

when  we  consider  that  it  was  no  part  of  the  sacred 
historians  duty  to  teach  cosmogony. 

I  now  dismiss  the  subject  of  discrepances,  to  re- 
turn to  the  main  question — that  of  the  proofs  of  great 
age  in  our  ^arth.  An  entire  volume  would  not  be  too 
much  space  to  devote  to  it.  I  begin  with  our  own  re- 
gion. 

If  you  look  about  from  the  upland  of  this  village,* 
you  observe  a  plain,  the  general  level  of  which  ex- 
tends from  the  Summit  Lake  northerly  to  old  Portage 
and  Cuyahoga  Falls.  On  each  side  of  this  space  are 
rocky  highlands,  in  the  township  of  Portage  on  the 
west,  and  Tallmadge  to  the  east.  The  Cuyahoga  riv- 
er comes  in  from  the  north-east,  the  Little  Cuyahoga 
on  the  south-east,  and  on  the  south  the  branch  which 
runs  from  the  Summit  Lake  through  this  village. 
These  streams  have  worn  channels  or  gulfs  into  the 
plain,  from  fifty  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  deep, 
and  the  inquiry  arises  at  once,  how  long  would  it  take 
their  waters  to  do  this  work  ? 

The  present  course  of  our  streams  was  marked  out 
as  the  ancient  waters  receded,  and  the  dry  land  ap- 
peared. Our  streams  are  merely  the  conduits  for 
water  falling  from  the  clouds  upon  the  surface  of  the 
earth. 

As  the  land  emerged  from  the  ocean,  there  would 
be  at  first  short  rivulets  like  those  of  an  island,  and 
as  the  waters  fell  the  length  and  number  of  streams 
would  be  increased.  These  would  unite,  always  ta- 
king the  lowest  ground,  forming  great  trunks  like  the 
Ohio,  and  finally  like  the  Mississippi.  The  mouths  of 
course  changing  position,  and  advancing  as  the  level 
of  the  sea  into  which  they  discharged,  became  lower 
and  lower.     This  is  on  the  supposition  of  a  gradual 

*  Akron,  Ohio,  -where  this  discourse  was  delivered  as  1  Lecture 
before  the  Lyceum,  March  7.  L849. 


AGE   OP   THE   UNIVERSE.  205 

subsidence  of  the  waters,  or  a  gradual  rise  of  the  land, 
both  of  which  may  have  taken  place.  In  some  parts 
of  the  world,  these  movements  were  convulsive  and 
not  gradual. 

Imagine  the  level  of  the  water  to  be  at  the  sum- 
mit of  the  bluffs  at  the  old  Portage  ;  and,  as  it  settled 
away,  the  Cuyahoga  beginning  its  work  of  excavation 
upon  the  drift  which  occupied  its  immediate  valley. 

The  deposits  of  sand,  clay,  and  gravel,  would  be 
rapidly  removed,  as  many  of  you  have  witnessed,  in 
the  artificial  grades  effected  by  means  of  water,  at  the 
sand  bluffs  of  the  Little  Cuyahoga,  north  of  this  town. 

But  beneath  this  drift,  there  is  a  rock  to  which 
the  streams  soon  come ;  and  after  that  their  progress 
in  excavation  must  be  slow,  depending  upon  the  na- 
ture of  the  rock  for  hardness.  The  surface  rock  here 
is  called  "  conglomerate,"  or  the  "  pebbly  sandstone," 
being  a  coarse-grained  sand  rock,  with  white  silicious 
pebbles  imbedded.  It  is  on  the  average  about  one 
hundred  feet  thick,  and  may  be  seen  in  the  street  just 
north  of  the  Court  House,  at  the  canal  quarry,  at  the 
point  of  rocks,  the  old  forge,  Middlebury,  and  in  both 
banks  of  the  Cuyahoga,  from  the  Valley  Forge  to 
Cuyahoga  Falls. 

The  rock  below  it  is  composed  of  alternate  layers 
of  soft  shale,  and  close-grained  sandstone,  and  iron 
ore. 

The  fall  or  descent  of  the  two  Cuyahogas  is  about 
one  hundred  and  sixty  feet  in  two  miles  along  the  rap- 
ids :  more  than  half  of  which  is  in  chutes,  and  tumbles 
over  the  conglomerate  rock.  The  fine-grained  sand- 
stone,  and  shale  beneath,  in  which  the  channel  is 
formed  below  the  edge  of  the  conglomerate,  is  easily 
worn  away  by  the  force  of  the  current  and  by  frost. 

On  the  contrary,  the  conglomerate  is  a  very  dura- 
ble rock,  not  easily  disintegrated  by  weather  or  by 
18 


206  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

water.  The  characteristic  features  are  those  of  cliffs, 
standing  out  sharp  cut  to  the  day,  while  softer  rocks 
form  rounded  and  earth-covered  bluffs.  Wherever 
this  rock  is  found,  there  are  water-falls,  and  a  rude, 
wild  scenery.  When  the  waters  of  the  great  Cuyaho- 
ga begin  to  fall  over  the  edges  of  this  rock,  at  the 
lower  end  of  the  gorge  at  Valley  Forge,  the  shale  be- 
neath would  be  torn  up  rapidly  by  the  force  of  the  de- 
scent :  but  the  conglomerate,  acting  as  a  protection, 
prevented  the  channel  from  wearing  up  stream  as  fast 
as  it  would  have  done  if  the  rock  had  been  all  shale. 
The  undermining  process  would  go  on  below,  and  at 
the  same  time  the  wearing  process  above.  There  is 
now  presented  a  chasm  two  miles  in  length,  at  the 
lower  end  about  200  feet  deep,  at  the  upper  25  or  30  ; 
its  width  but  little  greater  than  its  depth. 

How  many  years  must  have  elapsed  during  the 
formation  of  this  gulf?  Along  the  upper  half  the 
water  has  not  yet  cut  through  the  hard  conglomerate 
rock,  which  there  forms  the  bed  as  well  as  the  walls  of 
the  gulf.  Since  the  occupation  of  white  men,  no  per- 
ceptible gain  has  been  observed  upon  the  rocky  chan- 
nel of  the  river  by  the  action  of  the  elements.  It  is 
a  rock,  which,  when  quarried  and  put  in  buildings, 
bridges,  and  walls,  is  regarded  as  proof  against  weath- 
er and  climate.  Its  constituents  are  silicious  crystals 
and  pebbles,  cemented  by  a  little  iron.  And  yet  the 
never-ceasing  flow  of  the  Cuyahoga  is  eating  a  path- 
way through  its  mass  at  a  slow  but  certain  rati'. 

If  we  could,  by  long  observation,  determine  how 
much  was  gained  in  a  period  of  years,  as  they  have  at 
the  falls  of  Niagara,  we  could  give  the  estimate  a  math- 
ematical form  and  certainty. 

At  the  Niagara  river,  the  chasm  is  seven  miles  in 
length,  and  the  most  eminent  geologists  have  made 
computations  upon  the   rate   of  its  advance.     They 


AGE   OF   THE   UNIVERSE.  207 

have  a  map  of  the  figure  of  the  Fall,  made  by  Hen- 
nepin, about  1680,  and  have  studied  the  character  of 
the  rocks  which  lie  beneath. 

There,  as  here,  there  is  a  substratum  of  shale, 
easily  torn  away ;  the  lime  rock  at  the  crest  of  the 
Falls  being  of  better  resisting  power.  They  have 
also  discovered  an  ancient  channel  which  leaves  the 
present  one  at  the  whirlpool,  and  reaches  Lake  Onta- 
rio some  miles  west  of  the  present  mouth  of  the  Niag- 
ara river.  This  channel  is  now  filled  with  drift ;  but 
that  the  river,  or-at  least  a  part  of  it,  once  discharged 
there,  is  well  established  by  Sir  Charles  Lyell.  The 
geologist  of  New  York,  Mr.  James  Hall,  has  made 
close  surveys  of  the  Fall  as  it  now  is,  and  in  addition 
to  the  map  has  fixed  copper  pins  in  the  rocks,  by  which 
means  future  examiners  may  judge  of  the  recession 
of  the  Falls. 

After  all  these  investigations,  I  believe  no  geolo- 
gist fixes  the  period  that  must  have  been  occupied  by 
the  Niagara  river  in  excavating  its  present  channel 
below  the  Falls,  at  less  than  43,000  years. 

Considering  the  resisting  nature  of  the  conglome- 
rate as  compared  with  the  Niagara  limestone,  which 
is  slightly  soluble  in  water,  the  less  mechanical  power 
of  the  stream,  and  the  apparent  stability  of  the  rock 
since  the  settlement  of  this  country  by  whites,  I  am 
inclined  to  regard  the  time  necessary  to  wear  out  the 
gulf  of  the  Falls  of  Cuyahoga  as  great  as  that  for 
Niagara,  or  say  50,000  years. 

This  is  one  item  in  our  computation,  and  applies 
only  to  the  lapse  of  time,  since  the  deposition  of  the 
sedimentary  rocks,  and  the  emergence  of  the  conti- 
nents from  the  ancient  seas. 

Another  item  of  the  account,  founded  on  geo- 
logical investigation,  is  the  period  between  the  drift 
and  the  igneous  or  plutonic  rocks,  heretofore  known  as 


£08  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

the  primary.  This  was  occupied  in  the  slow  deposit 
of  the  "  sedimentary "  or  aqueous  rocks,  having  a 
thickness  of  two  to  five  miles.  Every  stone-mason 
and  quarry -man  knows  that  the  rocks  split  in  the  hori- 
zontal much  easier  than  they  break  in  the  vertical 
line.  This  is  owing  to  the  mode  of  deposition  by  very 
gradual  subsidence,  such  as  we  see  when  muddy  water 
is  allwed  too  settle  and  become  clear. 

Tbe  mud  at  the  bottom  forms  in  thin  layers  or  la- 
mina, and  when  the  waters  retire  as  in  floods  of  the 
Ohio  and  Mississippi,  and  the  residuary  matter  be- 
comes dry  in  the  sun.  it  peels  up  in  thin  distinct  beds 
like  slate  or  shale.  The  secondary  shales  are  the  best 
example  of  Laminated  rocks,  but  the  sandstones  and 
conglomerates  are  stratified,  internally,  in  a  less  de- 
gree. It  is  this  universal  feature  which  distinguishes 
the  aqieous  from  the  igneous  rocks,  of  which  there 
are  none  in  Ohio.  The  aqueous,  or  sedimentary,  con- 
tain fossils,  and  from  these  facts  we  can  deduce  their 
great  age. 

In  this  State  we  may  examine  about  4000  feet  in 
thickness  of  the  fossilliferous,  stratified,  and  lamina- 
ted rocks.  Their  order  and  relative  thickness  may 
be  seen  in  the  Ohio  Reports,  extending  from  the  low- 
er silurian,  or  blue  limestone  of  Cincinnati,  up  to  the 
top  of  the  coal  series. 

Now  the  fact  of  one  bed,  or  stratum,  lying  above 
another  in  the  aqueous  rocks,  is  conclusive  as  to  its 
relative  age. 

The  upper  one  must  be  the  most  recent.  The  coal 
series  must  be  newer  than  the  conglomerate,  the  con- 
glomerate newer  than  the  fine-grained  sandstone,  the 
line-grained  sandstone  newer  than  the  black  shale, 
and  this  newer  than  the  cliff  limestone,  which  is  be- 
neath it.  Carry  the  same  reasoning  into  superposition 
of  lamina,  and  each  definable   portion  of  the  bed   or 


AGE   OP   THE    UNIVERSE.  209 

stratum,  not  thicker  sometimes  than  stout  paper,  is 
more  recent  than  the  lamina  below  it.  How  many 
hundreds  of  thousands  of  these  may  there  be  in  4000 
feet? 

You  will  then  inquire  what  is  the  evidence  that 
these  thin  plates  of  rock  were  deposited  slowly,  and 
not  in  a  short  space  of  time.  If  they  are  closely  ex- 
amined, there  will  be  seen  enclosed  within  the  mass 
the  forms  of  animals  and  plants,  which  retain  their 
form  and  minutest  markings  in  all  the  perfection  of 
life. 

The  marine  animals,  the  testacea  and  the  Crustacea, 
must  have  lived  and  grown  near  where  they  are  now 
found,  for  they  are  not  constructed  for  travel.  The 
rate  of  deposition  must  therefore  have  been  such  as  to 
allow  a  quiet  existence,  not  disturbed  by  a  rapid  flux 
and  reflux  of  the  waters. 

In  agitated  and  highly  turbid  waters,  their  dead 
bodies  would  soon  be  injured,  if  not  destroyed ;  and 
at  least  the  delicate  markings  of  these  shells  would 
be  worn  off.  The  same  reasoning  may  be  applied  to 
the  vegetable  remains  of  the  coal  series.  If  they 
were  not  deposited  in  quiet  waters,  the  leaves  and  fine 
fibres  of  the  stems  would  certainly  be  lost ;  but  there 
is  not  a  flower  or  shrub  growing  on  the  face  of  the 
globe  more  perfect  than  the  coal  plants  that  adorn 
the  roofs  of  our  mines.  We  know,  too,  that  the  de- 
position now  going  on  in  the  bottom  of  our  lakes  and 
seas  is  comparatively  slow.  When  the  schooner 
Acorn  was  sunk  in  Lake  Erie,  in  the  fall  of  1843,  in 
68  feet  of  water,  and  ten  miles  from  shore,  the  sediment 
on  her  decks  at  the  expiration  of  two  months  was 
about  one  quarter  of  an  inch,  or  at  the  rate  of  one 
and  a  half  inches  per  year,  or  twelve  and  a  half  feet 
in  a  century. 

If  we  suppose  the  sedimentary  rocks  of  the  globe 
18  * 


210  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

to  be  three  miles  in  thickness,  and  I  have  seen  them 
where  they  are  much  thicker,  we  have  15,840  feet. 
Allowing  a  rate  of  deposition  twice  as  rapid  as  that 
upon  the  deck  of  the  Acorn,  or  twenty-five  feet  in  a 
century,  and  we  have  63,200  years  for  a  period  occu- 
pied in  the  formation  of  the  sedimentary  rocks,  and 
to  be  added  to  the  period  of  recession  in  Niagara  and 
Cuyahoga  Falls,  making  113,000  years.  It  may  be 
said  that  this  mode  of  calculation  is  very  indefinite — 
that  it  is  founded  on  speculation,  and  does  not  com- 
mand belief. 

I  think,  however,  without  pursuing  the  geological 
evidence  farther,  every  one  must  admit,  that  whether 
we  can  estimate  the  existence  of  the  world  correctly 
in  this  way  or  not,  there  are  proofs  on  one  side  of  an 
antiquity  for  greater  than  6000  years,  and  on  the 
other  no  contradictory  evidence,  even  in  the  Scriptures. 

But  there  is  a  method  of  calculation  that  is  liable 
to  no  objection,  and  capable  of  being  made  in  exact 
mathematical  terms.  It  is  based  on  a  knowledge  of 
the  velocity  of  light.  This  substance,  although  it 
travels  very  fast,  is  not,  like  electricity,  endowed  with 
the  faculty  of  instantaneous  transit  through  space.  It 
is  eight  minutes  and  thirteen  seconds  coming  to  us  from 
the  sun.  Astronomers  were  many  weary  years  trying 
to  find  out  the  distance  of  the  fixed  stars.  Their  re- 
moteness was  so  great,  that  when  viewed  from  opposite 
sides  of  the  earth's  orbit,  that  is  to  say,  at  opposite 
extremities  of  a  line,  190,000,000  of  miles  in  length, 
no  "parallax"  or  angle  at  the  star  was  observed. 

The  most  they  could  say  was.  that  if  the  angle 
was  only  tme  second,  they  should  have  been  able  to 
find  it.  and  that  the  distance  of  the  star  with  a  paral- 
lax .>f  ,,,(<■  second  would  be  twenty  billions  (i2<>,000,- 
000,000)  of  miles,  and  its  light  would  be  about  ten 
years  in  coming  t  j  us.     This  distance  is,  to  our  minds. 


AGE   OF   THE   UNIVERSE.  211 

absolutely  incomprehensible,  but  is  less  than  the  near- 
est fixed  stars,  and  therefore  less  than  the  space  be- 
tween the  outside  of  our  system,  and  the  inside  of  the 
starry  universe  beyond. 

In  comparison  with  such  distances,  the  orbit  of 
Leverrier's  planet  becomes  a  mere  line ;  yet  we  must 
tax  our  imaginations  to  mount  still  higher,  and  try 
and  grasp  the  idea  of  objects  many  times  more  remote 
than  Sirius  or  any  of  the  visible  stars. 

By  a  process  that  it  would  be  difficult  at  this  time 
to  make  intelligible,  Professor  Bessel,  of  Koningsburg, 
in  Prussia,  has  at  last  actually  solved  the  problem  of 
the  true  distance  of  a  fixed  star.  By  years  of  obser- 
vation upon  a  double  star  in  the  constellation  of  the 
Swan,  commonly  called  "61  cygni,"  he  has  found  a 
parallax,  by  which  a  mathematical  computation,  un- 
erring in  its  result,  gives  a  distance  about  three  times 
greater  than  the  least  limit  just  noticed,  or  63,000,- 
000,000  of  miles  instead  of  20,000,000,000— its  light 
being  thirty  years  in  making  a  journey  to  us,  at  the 
rate  of  12,000,000  of  miles  per  minute. 

Astronomers  take  this  fixed  quantity  as  a  unit,  and 
with  it  go  on  with  their  examinations  of  the  depths 
where  the  remoter  stars  are  seen.  This  is  done  by 
comparing  their  relative  brightness,  on  the  supposition 
that  they  are  of  equal  magnitude,  and  decrease  in 
brilliancy  on  account  of  distance.  Applying  this  rule, 
Sir  Wm.  Herschel's  great  telescope  brought  into  view 
stars  that  were  500  times  farther  off  than  61  cygni, 
and  thus  about  1500  years  of  our  reckoning  must  pass 
while  their  rays  are  travelling  to  our  system. 

But  we  can  not  rest  here,  although  our  minds  may 
stagger  at  the  thought  of  another  forward  movement 
in  space.  The  power  of  a  telescope  is  its  capacity  to 
make  a  body  appear  to  be  nearer  to  us  than  it  appears 
to  the  eye. 


212  FUGITIVE  ESSAYS. 

Sirius,  or  the  "Dog  Star,"  might  be  seen  by  the 
naked  eye,  if  removed  twelve  times  farther  from  us 
than  it  is. 

If  from  the  last  point  where  it  would  be  thus  visi- 
ble, it  was  removed  again  one  hundred  times  farther, 
and  a  telescope  of  the  power  of  100  applied  to  it,  the 
observer  would  bring  back  Sirius  to  his  vision.  The 
number  of  stars  which  we  behold  in  walking  out  of  a 
clear  evening  is  but  few  compared  to  those  which  the 
astronomer  sees  when  looking  through  his  telescope, 
and  the  higher  the  power  of  his  instrument,  the  more 
numerous  do  they  appear. 

Instruments  of  low  power  disclose  nebula  that  are 
imperceptible  to  the  unaided  vision,  which,  on  in- 
creasing the  telescopic  power,  are  found  to  be  not  ne- 
bula but  clusters  of  stars,  so  distant  that  at  first  they 
appear  like  a  fleece  or  cloud  of  light  resting  upon  the 
sky.  The  Milky  Way  is  an  instance  of  a  visible  ne- 
bula. Their  distance  is  estimated  by  the  power  used 
in  their  discovery,  supposing  the  intensity  of  their 
light  to  be  the  same  as  other  and  nearer  stars. 

Now  William  Herschel  examined  nebula,  that  his 
telescope  did  not  resolve,  or  separate  into  stars,  and 
its  power  was  such  that,  had  they  been  within  a  dis- 
tance from  where  their  light  would  come  to  us  in  350,- 
000  years,  he  would  have  detected  the  separate  stars. 
Lord  Rosse  has  resolved  some  of  these  nebula  with  his 
52  feet  reflecting  telescope,  whose  known  penetrating 
power  is  estimated  at  t>  n  times  that  of  Herschel's. 

The  last-named  astronomer  supposes  that  there 
are  luminous  bodies  within  the  telescopic  range  whose 
rays  reach  us  only  after  a  flight  of  more  than  a  mil- 
lion of  years. 

Such  is  the  scale  upon  which  the  universe  is  built. 
Its  remote  luminaries  are  no  longer  measured  by  miles, 
or  by  diameters  of  the  earth's  orbit.     These  standards 


AGE  OF   THE   UNIVERSE.  213 

of  measure,  though  scarcely  comprehensible  to  our 
senses — they  are  so  .great — when  applied  to  the  dis- 
tant fixed  stars,  are  so  small  that  they  do  not  convey 
the  ideas  which  astronomers  possess  and  desire  to 
communicate. 

When  they  spoke  of  the  comparative  distance  of 
the  stars  among  themselves,  they  state  how  many  years 
the  light  of  the  various  stars  will  occupy  in  traversing 
the  space  between  them. 

The  distance  of  a  star  of  the  first  magnitude,  like 
Sirrus,  Aldebaran,  or  Betelgeuse,  in  the  shoulder  of 
Orion,  they  say  is  seventeen  (17)  years  away  from  the 
sun.  Stars  of  the  second  magnitude,  thirty  (30)  years  ; 
and  those  of  the  sixth  magnitude,  being  the  most  re- 
mote that  are  visible  to  the  naked  eye,  are  (130)  one 
hundred  and  thirty  years  from  the  sun. 

Those  that  lie  so  far  out  in  the  ocean  of  the  sky, 
that  Herschel's  great  telescope  could  just  discover 
them,  require  3541  years  to  make  known  their  exist- 
ence to  us.  We  may  be  overwhelmed  by  such  conside- 
rations, our  finite  minds  may  be  strained  and  fatigued 
by  them,  but  wre  must  go  farther  still. 

The  sun  itself  is  in  motion,  bearing  along  wTith  it 
the  whole  train  of  planets,  satellites  and  comets,  which 
constitute  our  system. 

You  will  ask  where  is  it  travelling  to  ;  and  moving 
as  it  does  33,350,000  miles  each  year  ?  how  long  be- 
fore it  will  encounter  some  other  system,  and  produce 
confusion  there  ? 

Its  movement  is  now  towards  the  constellation  of 
ITi'veides.  We  should  consider  here,  wrhat  I  have  sta- 
ted before,  that  betAveen  the  outside  of  our  solar  sys- 
tem,— which  as  now  defined,  is  the  planet  of  Leverrier, 
and  the  nearest  fixed  star,  or  sun,  or  other  system, — 
there  is  a  space  which  it  takes  light — moving  12,000,- 
000  of  miles  every  minute  of  time — ten  years  to  cross  ; 


214  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

and  would  require  105,882  years  for  our  earth,  going 
on  an  errand  in  space  as  fast  as  it  does  in  its  own  or- 
bit, to  reach  our  nearest  celestial  neighbor. 

The  star  H  in  Hercules,  to  which  the  sun  is  direct- 
ing his  course,  is  much  more  distant ;  its  light  instead 
of  being  ten  years  is  forty-six  years  in  reaching  us. 
The  annual  rate  at  which  the  sun  moves,  as  I  have  just 
stated,  or  33,350,000  miles,  is  such  that  it  will  require 
from  this  time  about  1,800,000  years  for  us  to  reach 
Hercules  ;  provided  he  remains  at  rest.  But  not  only 
the  constellation  "  Hercules,"  but  all  the  constellations 
and  all  the  stars  have  a  motion,  and  revolve  around  a 
centred -point,  which  is  called  the  "centre  of  gravity" 
of  the  stellar  universe. 

This  point  is  near  the  star  Alcyone,  one  of  the 
Pleaides,  so  far  from  the  earth  that  its  light  is  537 
years  in  its  flight  from  there  to  us. 

As  a  right  line  motion  is  not  known  in  nature,  and 
since  it  is  well  settled  that  all  the  planets,  satellites, 
and  comets,  move  in  curves,  we  must  conclude  from 
analogy,  that  the  sun  and  all  the  stars  move  in  curves 
also,  such  as  circles  or  ellipses;  which  curves  return  to 
themselves,  and  constitute  an  orbit  like  those  of  the 
planets,  but  inconceivably  larger.  On  this  hypothesis 
how  long  must  time  flow  on,  before  our  sun  will  com- 
plete one  journey  around  Alcyone,  and  come  back  to 
its  present  position  ? 

Astronomers  have  computed  this  period,  knowing 
its  present  rate  of  progress,  ancl  fix  it  at  18,200,000 
years. ! 

I  have  introduced  these  sublime  facts  to  accustom 
you  to  the  idea  of  great  periods  of  time,  as  well  afl 
immense  distances  in  space. 

By  the  side  of  these  vast  eycles,  what  is  the  his- 
toric period  of  6000  years'.'  what  is  •  eentury  !  what 
the  life  of  man  1 


SKETCH    OF    CLEVELAND.  215 

If  the  ten  millions  of  suns  which  the  telescope 
discovers  in  the  heavens  have  been  in  existence  only 
6000  years,  our  lot  is  cast  in  the  earliest  infancy  of 
the  world.  For  if  but  6000  years  of  the  existence  of 
the  universe  have  elapsed,  what  figures  can  express 
the  period  when  its  being  shall  draw  to  a  close  ?  It  is 
reasonable  to  consider  that  a  work  of  such  extent  and 
grandeur,  should  have  a  length  of  life  in  proportion  to 
its  dimensions.  That  it  was  not  made  for  display  but 
for  some  useful  and  protracted  purpose ;  and  if  it  is 
true  that  the  stars,  like  the  planets,  have  their  orbits, 
and  periods  of  revolution,  it  is  no  doubt  true  that 
they  will  be  permitted  to  make  at  least  one  grand  cir- 
cuit around  the  universe  before  they  are  blotted  out. 


SKETCH  OF  THE  LOCATION,  SETTLEMENT,  AND 
PKOGRESS  OF  THE  CITY  OF  CLEVELAND. 

[American  Pioneer,  Vol.  II,  No.  I,  January,  1843.] 


This  city  is  situated  on  a  dry,  sandy  plain,  be- 
tween Lake  Erie  and  the  Cuyahoga  river ;  sloping 
gently  towards  the  lake,  from  which  the  water  view  is 
exquisitely  fine.  The  plain  has  an  elevation  of  seven- 
ty-five feet  on  the  lake  side,  ninety-six  at  the  public 
square,  and  about  one  hundred  and  fifteen  at  the  high- 
est point  on  High  street.  It  appears  to  have  been  oc- 
cupied in  ancient  times  by  the  "race  of  the  mounds," 
or  a  people  between  them  and  the  present  Indian  race. 


216  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

Within  the  corporate  limits  of  the  city,  there  were 
traces  of  two  slight  works,  or  lines  of  earthen  embank- 
ment, in  existence  when  the  white  settlement  began. 
One  of  them  is  said  to  have  been  located  on  the  bluff', 
west  of  the  Light-house  ;  another  overlooked  the  river 
from  a  point  west  of  the  intersection  of  Kinsman  and 
Pittsburgh  streets.  A  few  low  mounds  of  earth  are 
scattered  over  the  plain. 

In  the  journeyings  of  the  Indians  this  seemed  to 
be  an  important  point.  It  is  situated  at  a  great 
southerly  bend  in  the  shore  of  the  lake,  though  not 
the  most  southerly  one,  which  is  near  the  mouth  of 
Huron  river.  But  the  Cuyahoga  river  enabled  their 
canoes  to  proceed  about  thirty-five  miles  inland,  to  the 
"  old  portage  path  ;"  from  thence  a  portage  of  seven 
miles  brought  them  to  the  Tuscarawas,  a  navigable 
branch  of  the  Muskingum,  which  communicated  with 
the  Ohio.  By  land,  various  well-known  trails  concen- 
trated at  the  mouth  of  the  Cuyahoga.  The  opposite 
banks  of  the  stream  seem  to  have  been  subject  to  dif- 
ferent jurisdictions  from  a  remote  period.  The  Six 
Nations  and  the  Wyandot  confederacy,  nations  (.{'ten 
engaged  in  war  against  each  other,  both  upon  land 
and  water,  made  the  Cuyahoga  and  the  "portage  path  " 
a  part  of  their  boundary. 

After  the  war  of  the  revolution,  the  British  refused 
to  yield  possession  of  the  lake  country  west  of  this 
stream,  and  occupied  to  its  shores  until  1790.  Their 
traders  had  a  house  in  Ohio  City,  standing  north  of 
the  Detroit  road  on  the  point  of  the  hill  near  the  river, 
when  the  surveyors  first  arrived  there.  By  the  treaty 
of  Greenville  (May,  17'.)")),  the  -western  Indian-. 
feated  at  Wayne's  battle  the  season  previous,  relin- 
quished all  claim  to  the  lands  east  of  the  Cuyahoga, 
the  Portage  and  the  Muskingum,  as  low  down  as  Fort 
Laurens,  which  is  near  Bolivar  in  Tuscarawas  county. 


SKETCH   OP   CLEVELAND.  217 

At  a  council,  held  at  Buffalo  in  1796,  by  General 
Cleveland  and  the  representatives  of  the  Six  Nations, 
the  latter  people  gave  the  whites  peaceable  possession 
of  that  part  of  the  Reserve  east  of  this  river.  It 
thus  remained  the  line  of  partition  between  the  white 
and  the  red  men  until  July  4,  1805,  when  the  general 
government  extinguished  the  Indian  title  to  the  re- 
mainder of  the  Reserve,  by  treaty. 

When  the  first  county  north-west  of  the  Ohio  was 
erected  (July  27,  1788),  the  Cuyahoga  was  a  part  of 
its  western  boundary,  and  the  lake  its  northern.  Af- 
ter the  delivery  of  the  western  posts  by  the  English, 
the  county  of  Wayne  was  set  off  by  the  territorial 
government,  with  the  county  seat  at  Detroit,  extend- 
ing north  and  west  as  far  as  the  dominions  of  the  Uni- 
ted States;  its  eastern  limit  was  defined  to  be  the 
course  of  the  Cuyahoga,  the  Muskingum,  and  the  old 
portage  path.  From  the  time  when  La  Salle  made 
the  voyage  of  the.  lakes  in  the  "  Griffin,"  until  the 
abandonment  of  Canada  by  the  French,  in  1763,  their 
traders  traversed  these  regions,  and  are  supposed  to 
have  established  houses  a  few  miles  up  the  river.  Af- 
ter them,  the  British  Fur  Companies  occupied  their 
place,  and  kept  a  few  small  vessels  upon  the  lake. 
Some  years  before  the  settlement  here,  a  schooner, 
commanded  by  Captain  Thorn,  was  wrecked  a  short 
distance  below  town,  and  the  crew  wintered  on  shore 
near  the  remains  of  the  vessel. 

From  an  early  day,  the  leading  Virginia  states- 
men regarded  the  mouth  of  the  Cuyahoga  as  an  im- 
portant commercial  position.  George  Washington,  in 
his  journey  to  the  French  forts,  Venango  and  Le 
Boeuf,  in  1753,  obtained  information  which  led  him  to 
consider  it  as  the  point  of  divergence  of  the  future 
commerce  of  the  lakes,  seeking  the  ocean.  Virginia 
being  then  regarded  as  the  State  through  which  this 
19 


218  FUGITIVE   E88AYS. 

trade  must  pass  to  the  Atlantic,  Mr.  Jefferson,  in  his 
notes  upon  that  State,  points  out  the  channel  through 
which  it  will  move  to  the  ocean.  He  considers  the 
Cuyahoga  and  Mahoning  as  navigable,  and  separated 
only  by  a  short  portage,  to  be  overcome  by  a  canal. 
Once  in  the  Ohio,  produce,  in  his  opinion,  might  as- 
cend its  branches  and  descend  the  Potomac  to  the 
sea. 

In  1795,  the  Connecticut  Land  Company  was  or- 
ganized at  Hartford,  Connecticut.  On  the  5th  of 
September,  the  fifty-six  individuals  composing  it  re- 
ceived a  deed  from  the  State  of  Connecticut  of  three 
million  of  acres,  in  what  was  called  the  Western  Re- 
serve. They  sent  out  forty-three  surveyors  the  next 
year,  who  wrere  directed  to  divide  that  part  lying  east  of 
the  Cuyahoga  into  townships  of  five  miles  square.  On 
the  16th  of  September,  Seth  Pease  (a  brother  of  the 
late  Judge  Pease  of  the  Supreme  Court)  and  Augus- 
tus Porter  commenced  the  survey  of  the  "  City  of 
Cleveland,"  as  it  is  called  in  the  minutes.  General 
Moses  Cleveland,  the  agent  of  the  Company,  had  the 
honor  of  furnishing  it  with  a  name.  This  ground  had 
been  the  source  of  much  controversy  between  the 
States,  and  also  the  government.  Connecticut  laid 
claim  to  all  north  of  the  forty-first  degree  of  north 
latitude,  as  far  as  forty-two  degrees  two  minutes  north, 
and  westward  to  the  great  South  sea,  by  virtue  of  a 
patent  from  Charles  II.,  king  of  England.  New  York 
procured  a  patent  conflicting  with  this  claim.  Penn- 
sylvania and  Virginia  had  also  their  paper  titles  upon 
parts  of  the  same  territory.  By  deed,  dated  Septnn- 
ber  13, 178G,  Connecticut  released  all  claim  to  the  w<  st- 
ern lands,  excepting  and  reserving  New  Connecticut, 
since  called  "  the  Reserve."  This  embraces  that  pari 
of  Ohio  north  of  the  f<»rt v-iirst  degree,  and  east  of 
the  meridian,  one   hundred  and  twenty  miles  west  of 


SKETCH   OF   CLEVELAND.  219 

the  Pennsylvania  line.  By  the  deed  of  cession,  Vir- 
ginia had  transferred  most  of  her  rights  north-west  of 
the  Ohio  to  the  United  States,  March  1st,  1784. 
Notwithstanding  the  claims  of  Connecticut  to  the 
Reserve,  the  United  States  assumed  jurisdiction  so 
far  as  political  sovereignty  was  concerned,  by  the  or- 
dinance of  July  13th,  1787.  In  1792,  Connecticut 
made  a  grant  of  half  a  million  of  acres,  on  the  west 
end  of  the  Reserve,  to  the  sufferers  by  fire,  and  there- 
lore  called  the  "  fire  lands."  She  still  claimed,  but 
did  not  exercise,  jurisdiction  of  her  western  province. 
At  length  on  the  30th  of  May,  1800,  the  United 
States  having  relinquished  all  claim  to  the  soil  of  this 
tract,  the  State  of  Connecticut  gave  up  the  right  of 
jurisdiction  to  the  Union  at  large. 

The  members  of  the  Land  Company,  on  the  same 
day  they  received  a  deed  from  the  State  of  that  part 
east  of  the  fire  lands,  conveying  to  John  Morgan, 
John  Caldwell,  and  Jonathan  Brace,  all  their  lands, 
in  trust,  for  specified  purposes ;  and  it  is  through  the 
quit  claim  deed$  of  these  trustees  that  title  to  lands 
in  this  city  and  throughout  the  Company's  purchase 
is  derived.  The  Company  paid  the  State  one  million 
two  hundred  thousand  dollars  for  three  million  acres, 
each  owner  being  a  tenant  in  proportion  to  his  stock. 

By  the  close  of  1797,  the  portion  east  of  the  Cuy- 
ahoga had  been  laid  off  into  townships.  Six  of  them, 
including  Cleveland,  were  reserved  for  private  sale, 
on  account  of  some  highly  valuable  advantages.  Four 
were  surveyed  into  lots  of  one  hundred  and  sixty  acres 
each,  making  four  hundred  in  all,  to  be  annexed 
to  the  poorer  townships,  in  order  to  equalize  them 
with  Poland,  the  richest  of  all.  The  remaining  ninety- 
three  were  drawn  in  a  lottery,  a  township  for  every 
Twelve  thousand  nine  hundred  and  three  dollars  twenty- 
three   cents  interest,  and   conveyed  by  the   trustees. 


1*20  FUGITIVE   B8SA  . 

The  first  drawing  took  place  in  February,  1798.  In 
I806,  all  the  trustees  first  appointed  were  Living,  re- 
tained their  trust,  and  executed  deeds;  Mr.  Morgan 
still  survives. 

The  original  plat  of  the  city  represents  two  hun- 
dred and  twenty  lots,  seven  streets,  and  four  lane- — - 
Superior  street,  one  hundred  and  thirty-two  feet  wide  ; 
Lake,  Huron,  and  Ohio,  each  one  hundred;  and  all 
parallel  with  the  lake  were  original  streets.  Water 
street,  Ontario,  and  Erie,  perpendicular  to  the  others, 
and  a  public  square,  thirty-eight  by  forty  rod*,  were 
laid  out  in  1796,  and  also  Mandrake,  Union,  Vineyard, 
and  Maiden  lanes.  In  November,  1802,  Amos  Spaf- 
ford  made  a  re-survey  of  the  streets,  altering  some 
and  establishing  others.  Superior  lane  was  laid  out 
by  him.  The  minutes  of  this  survey,  in  an  informal 
state,  were  copied  into  the  records  of  Trumbull  county  ; 
but,  for  the  most  part,  no  legal  record  exists  of  the 
streets  in  Cleveland. 

With  the  surveyors,  came  Mr.  Job  Stiles  and  his  fa  111- 
dy,  and  became  the  first  resident.  Judge  Kingsbury, 
now  of  Newburg  in  this  county,  came  about  the  same 
time,  but  left  his  family  at  Cosne&mt.  Mrs.  Stiles 
was  the  mother  of  the  first,  and  Mrs.  Kingsbury  of 
the  second,  white  child  born  on  the  Reserve.  Mr. 
Stiles  left  the  county  in  1798,  and  Mr.  Kingsbury  re- 
moved to  his  present  farm  in  the  same  year.  In  1 7*.  >7. 
Lorenzo  Carter  became  a  permanent  inhabitant  ;  ami 
soon  after  him,  Nathaniel  Ooane,  who  went  to  Doaite'a 
Corners  in  1798.  lietwecn  this  time  ami  1m>j.  M-. 
Hally,  Mr.  Gunn,  Stephen  Gilbert,  Amos  Spa  fiord. 
David  Clark,  and  Samuel  Huntingdon,  arrived  and 
settled  in  Cleveland  and  its  vicinity.  Mr.  Hunting- 
don afterward  removed  to  Newburg  Mills,  and  theme, 
in  1807,  to  Painesville.  He  was  a  judge  of  the  Su- 
preme Court  of  Ohio,  and  Governor  of   the  State. 


SKETCH   OF   CLEVELAND.  221 

Mr.  Carter's  first  cabin  stood  under  the  hill,  between 
River  street  -  and  Mandrake  lane,  near  St.  Clair  lane. 
Mr.  Clark  died  in  1806*,  on  the  farm  across  Kings- 
bury run,  on  the  Pittsburgh  road. 

In  August,  1805,  the  Cuyahoga  was  made  a  port 
of  entry,  and  John  Walworth  appointed  Collector. 
His  first  official  duty  was  the  furnishing  a  clearance 
to  the  schooner  *'  Good  Intent,"  which  was  lost  imme- 
diately after,  near  Long  Point,  crew,  vessel,  and  car- 
go. He  was  also  made  Postmaster,  Clerk  of  the  Court, 
and  Recorder;  and  died  in  September,  1812. 

In  July,  1797,  the  county  of  Washington  was  di- 
vided, and  this  place  fell  within  the  county  of  Jeffer- 
son, seat  of  justice  at  Steubenville.  July  10,  1800, 
the  county  of  Trumbull  was  established,  county  seat 
at  Warren;  and  embracing  ail  of  the  Reserve.  De- 
cember 31,  1805,  a  new  division  took  place,  which 
left  Cleveland  in  the  county  of  Geauga;  organized 
March  1st,  1806.  On  the  10th  of  February,  1808, 
the  county  of  Cuyahoga  was  erected;  organized  May 
1st,  1810,  with  Cleveland  as  the  county  seat.  The 
first  Court  of  Common  Pleas  was  holden  June  5,  1810. 
Of  this  Court,  Benjamin  Ruggles  was  presiding  judge, 
Major  Nathan  Perry,  Timothy  Doane  and  Augustus 
Gilbert,  associates.  Of  the  first  grand  jury,  James 
Kingsbury  was  foreman ;  a  place  to  which,  by  long 
usage,  he  seems  to  have  acquired  a  kind  of  prescrip- 
tive right.  The  Supreme  Court  held  its  first  sitting 
on  the  13th  of  August,  1810  ;  judges,  William  W. 
Price  and  Ethan  Allen  Brown.  At  the  April  term, 
1812,  an  Indian  of  the  Chippeway  tribe,  by  the  name 
of  John-O-Mic,  was  indicted  for  the  murder  of  Daniel 
Buel,  *i  white  man,  at  Pipe  creek,  near  Sandusky  city. 
And  also  as  an  accomplice  with  Lemo,  an  Indian  of  the 
same  tribe,  in  the  murder  of  Michael  Gibbs,  at  the 
same  place.  It  apoears  that  O-Mic  killed  Buel  with 
19* 


22fi  FUGITIVE  ESSAYS. 

his  tomahawk,  and  Lemo  shot  Gibbs  with  a  pistol  at 
the  same  time.  Their  object  was  merely  the  plunder 
of  a  few  articles  of  goods  and  clothing.  Lemo  re- 
treated to  his  tribe,  at  Cedar  Point,  for  protection. 
The  officers  of  justice  pursued  him,  and,  arriving  Ht 
the  camp,  found  his  body  stretched  upon  the  ground 
without  life.  Through  fear  of  the  United  States  he 
had  been  bound,  for  the  purpose  of  being  delivered  up 
to  justice.  To  avoid  this,  he  rolled  himself  to  a  tree, 
against  which  stood  a  loaded  gun.  Though  pinioned 
with  his  arms  behind,  he  contrived  to  place  the  muz- 
zle to  his  throat,  and  discharged  the  piece  with  his 
toe.  O-Mic  was  convicted  and  sentenced  to  be  hung 
on  the  26*th  of  June,  1812.  He  had  been  confined 
since  the  arrest,  by  a  chain  and  staple,  to  the  floor  of 
Mr.  Carter's  ball-room,  in  the  old  red  house,  formerly 
standing  beetween  Water  street  and  Union  lane,  near 
Superior  lane,  and  had  grown  fat  and  strong.  At  the 
hour  of  execution,  he  objected  to  going  upon  the  scaf- 
fold ;  this  difficulty  was  removed,  however,  by  the 
promise  of  a  pint  of  whiskey,  which  he  swallowed,  and 
took  his  departure  for  the  land  of  the  great  spirit. 
This  event  was  witnessed  by  large  numbers  of  citizens, 
from  this  and  adjoining  counties,  at  the  centre  of  the 
public  square.  They  were  assembled  with  arms,  un- 
der apprehensions  of  an  attempt,  on  the  part  of  the 
Indians,  to  rescue  O-Mic. 

The  declaration  of  war,  in  June  of  the  same  year, 
placed  our  city  in  an  important  and  dangerous  posi- 
tion. In  1813  it  became  a  depot  of  supplies  and  ren- 
dezvous for  troops  destined  for  operations  farther 
west.  A  small  stockade  was  erected  at  the  foot  of 
Ontario  street  on  the  bank  of  the  lake,  the  outlines  of 
which  are  still  visible.  A  permanent  garrison  of  in- 
fantry, under  Major  Jessup,  now  <pi:irter-master  gen- 
eral of  the  United  States  army,  occupied  the  place. 


SKETCH   OF   CLEVELAND.  223 

Although  the  British  vessels  appeared  frequently 
off  the  town,  no  attempts  at  landing  were  made  here. 
The  greatest  alarm  was  occasioned  by  the  approach 
of  boats  containing  the  prisoners  surrendered  by 
Hull  at  Detroit,  who  were  at  first  mistaken  for  British 
and  Indian  troops  advancing  to  storm  the  place. 

At  length  peace  came,  and  the  alarms  of  war  be- 
ing past,  the  occasion  was  thought  to  be  worthy  of 
celebration,  by  libations  of  whiskey,  and  the  dis- 
charge of  cannon.  During  the  performance,  the  pres- 
ent sexton  of  the  graveyard,  Abram  Hickox,  carried 
the  powder  in  an  open  tin  pail  upon  his  arm ;  to  fire 
the  gun,  another  carried  a  stick  with  fire  at  the  end, 
kept  alive  by  swinging  it  through  the  air.  Amid  the 
general  excitement,  a  spark  from  this  brand  found  its 
way  into  uncle  Abram 's  powder  about  the  time  the 
gun  was  discharged.  The  body  of  the  worthy  sexton 
was  seen  to  rise  through  the  air  as  high  as  the  eaves 
of  the  house,  and  returned  to  the  earth  blackened 
and  destitute  of  clothing.  According  to  his  own  vo- 
ciferations he  was  already  dead,  but  the  bystanders 
thought  differently ;  and  carried  him  to  a  room,  where 
it  was  found  that  he  was  not  dangerously  wounded. 

By  an  act  of  the  legislature,  dated  December  23, 
1814,  the  village  was  incorporated,  with  limited  pow- 
ers, administered  by  a  President,  Recorder,  and  three 
Trustees.  In  March,  1836,  a  more  extensive  charter 
was  obtained,  with  full  municipal  authority,  exercised 
by  a  council,  composed  of  the  Mayor,  three  Alder- 
men, and  of  Councilmen,  three  from  each  ward. 

The  Ohio  Canal  was  commenced  in  1825,  and  con- 
nected with  the  Cuyahoga  near  its  mouth.  By  means 
of  the  experiments  at  Buffalo  and  Erie,  it  was  now 
settled  that  artificial  harbors  might  be  made  in  the 
still  water  at  the  mouths  of  lake  streams.  Here  a 
harbor  was  indispensable  to  connect  the  lake  and  ca- 


224  FUGITIVE   ESSAY8. 

nal  navigation.  Mr.  A  Kelly,  then  one  of  the  canal 
commissioners  of  Ohio,  considered  the  construction  of 
one  at  this  point  as  practicable,  and  reported  to  the 
legislature  that  five  thousand  dollars  would  be  Suffi- 
cient for  the  object.  Upon  the  importunity  of  citizens, 
backed  by  the  authority  of  this  report,  Congress,  with 
great  reluctance,  appropriated  five  thousand  dollars 
in  the  winter  of  1824-5.  It  was  confided  to  A.  W. 
Walworth,  Esq.,  collector  of  the  port,  without  surveys 
or  even  instructions  as  to  the  manner  of  disbursement. 
Upon  consultation  it  was  determined  to  start  a  pier 
from  the  shore,  outward  into  the  lake,  nearly  at  right 
angles,  being  in  the  direction  north  thirty-two  de- 
grees west,  beginning  about  forty  rods  east  of  the 
point  where  the  river  then  discharged  itself.  Here, 
as  at  all  other  streams  on  the  lakes,  there  was  a  chan- 
nel, at  times,  at  others  not.  To  those  acquainted  with 
the  action  of  waves  which  strike  obliquely  upon  a  shore, 
it  is  known  that  a  lateral  current  is  created  of  much 
force.  It  is  thus  that  masses  of  sand  travel  up  and 
down  the  coast  according  to  the  prevalence  of  the 
wind.  Here,  the  north-eastern  winds  predominate, 
and  therefore'the  eastern  bank  of  the  stream  lias  a 
tendency  to  prolong  itself  ivestward  at  the  mouth,  and 
cause  the  river  to  enter  the  lake  obliquely.  The  object 
of  this  single  pier  was  to  catch  the  drift  from  tin 
and  to  prevent  it  from  filling  the  channel.  In  the 
natural  state,  it  was  very  seldom  that  a  schooner  of 
fifty  tons  could  enter  without  lighterage,  and  many 
times  a  common  row  boat  would  touch.  The  pier  was 
extended  into  the  water  six  hundred  feet,  with  the  five 
thousand  dollars  first  appropriated.  As  usual,  the 
ma jority  predicted  unfavorably  to  the  success  of  the 
project;  even  some  of  those  concerned  had  doobta. 
The  pier  being  now  finished,  no  particular  change  in 
the  capacity  of  the  channel  was  observed.     Congress 


SKETCH   OF  CLEVELAND.  225 

had  given  all  that  was  asked  to  complete  a  harbor  ;  it 
had  been  disbursed  and  no  apparent  benefit  had  fol- 
lowed. The  faithless  had  the  satisfaction  of  seeing  the 
mouth  of  the  river  more  often  clogged  with  sand  than 
heretofore,  and,  in  one  instance,  a  bar  of  dry  land  ex- 
tended entirely  across  its  entrance.  This,  they  said, 
was  the  port  of  Cuyahoga. 

But  faith  still  remained  to  some  of  the  citizens, 
and  a  meeting  was  called  late  in  the  fall  of  1825, 
speeches  made,  and  two  committees  of  five  appointed. 
One  of  them  was  charged  with  the  selection  of  an 
agent  to  proceed  to  Washington  and  solicit  more  aid 
from  Congress  ;  the  other  with  the  duty  of  raising 
one  hundred  and  fifty  dollars  for  his  expenses.  A. 
W.  Walworth,  Esq.,  was  engaged  to  visit  the  federal 
city,  which  he  reached  in  January,  1826.  Prospects 
were  by  no  means  encouraging.  Cleveland  at  that 
time  presented  itself  to  the  minds  of  the  eastern  mem- 
bers, as  a  straggling  village,  on  the  frontiers  of  civili- 
zation. Its  relations  were  not  understood;  its  few 
inhabitants  shaking  with  the  ague,  and  only  thirty  or 
forty  arrivals  of  vessels  in  a  year  !  It  is,  therefore, 
not  strange  that  amid  the  moves  and  counter-moves 
of  the  great  capital,  such  a  city  should  lack  influence, 
or  its  claims  fail  to  receive  attention.  Mr.  Walworth 
found  that  personal  statements  would  not  be  received 
in  the  committee  (on  commerce),  and  that  Mr.  Cam- 
breling,  of  New  York,  was  decidedly  opposed  to  grant- 
ing assistance  to  any  of  the  western  ports.  Governor 
Tomlinson,  of  Connecticut,  also  a  member  of  the  com- 
mittee, took  an  opposite  view,  and  entered  warmly 
into  the  project.  Mr.  Whittlesey,  of  Ohio,  labored 
assiduously  and  eventually  with  success.  But  it  was 
notorious,  that  with  the  five  thousand  dollars,  which 
was  all  that  had  been  at  first  demanded  to  complete 
the  work,  no  certain  benefit  had  been  derived.     On 


226  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

the  other  sideT  the  "Washington,"  the  "Erie,"  and 
the  "  American  Eagle,"  had  been  stranded  in  sight 
of  the  proposed  harbor,  and  property  to  the  amount 
of  thirty  thousand  dollars  lost  to  the  owners.  It  was 
evident  that  commerce  must  cease  or  harbors  be  built. 
If  our  government  would  not  make  them,  the  ship- 
ping interest  would,  in  the  end,  be  compelled  to  do  it. 
In  1818,  a  steamboat  made  its  appearance  on  these 
waters,  called  the  "  Walk-in-the-water."  In  anticipa- 
tion of  the  construction  of  artificial  harbors  along  the 
shore,  as  had  been  already  done  at  Buffalo,  these  craft 
had  increased  in  number.  The  "Walk-in-the-water, 
unable  to  make  shelter,  was  lost  in  a  storm  in  the  fall 
of  1821.  The  steamboats  "Superior,"  "Henry  Clay/' 
"Enterprise,"  "Pioneer,"  and  others,  made  the  pas- 
sage of  the  lakes  in  fear,  and  without  regularity. 
Passengers  could  be  landed  as  well  at  one  point  of  the 
coast  as  another,  but  only  when  calm  weather  prevail- 
ed. There  were  at  times  exceptions  to  this  rule,  at 
Erie  and  Sandusky ;  but  persons  destined  for  this 
place  were  carried  by  twice,  or  even  thrice,  without 
being  able  to  land. 

Finally,  the  rule  of  the  committee  on  commerce  re- 
quiring statements  in  writing  was  rescinded  and  Messrs. 
Whittlesey  and  Walworth  appeared  before  them  in  per- 
son. Shortly  after,  they  reported  in  favor  of  grant- 
ing ten  thousand  dollars  in  addition  to  the  sum  of  five 
thousand  dollars  heretofore  expended,  being  in  full  the 
amount  supposed  to  be  necessary  to  completethe  work. 
Ten  thousand  dollars  was  finally  appropriated  by  law, 
but  not  in  time  for  use  in  182G.  In  the  spring  of  1827, 
Major  T.  W.  Maurice,  of  the  corps  of  engineers,  ar- 
rived and  examined  the  premises.  He  made  a  sur- 
vey, and  reported  a  plan  for  the  work,  of  which  the 
present  piers  are  the  result.  It  was  determined 
that  the  channel,  instead  of  being  formed  west  of  the 


SKETCH   OF   CLEVELAND.  227 

pier,  as  constructed  by  Walworth,  should  be  form- 
ed on  the  east  side  of  it,  between  this  and  another 
thrown  out  nearly  parallel  and  about  two  hundred  feet 
distant.  A  few  piles  had  been  driven  in  the  river  to 
turn  the  current  across,  as  originally  designed,  but  with- 
out effect.  Major  Maurice  ordered  a  dam  to  be  built 
directly  across  the  river,  opposite  the  south  end  of  the 
west  pier.  The  construction  of  this  barrier  occupied 
the  season.  An  opening  had  been  left  for  the  pas- 
sage of  such  craft  as  were  able  to  enter  the  river,  un- 
til late  in  the  fall,  when  it  became  necessary  to  test 
the  principle  of  the  work,  close  it  up,  and  direct  the 
water  of  the  river  across  the  neck  of  land  to  the  lake. 
To  many  of  the  lake  captains  and  proprietors  of  ves- 
sels, the  idea  of  forming  a  channel  where  nature  had 
failed  appeared  to  be  absurd,  and  the  expenditure  of 
money  for  such  a  purpose  equivalent  to  throwing  it 
away.  They  saw  the  natural  harbor,  poor  as  it  was, 
about  to  be  closed.  The  prospect  of  forming  another 
by  that  means  they  considered  as  nothing  at  all.  It 
appeared  to  them  that  their  natural  rights  of  naviga- 
tion were  to  be  taken  away  by  an  audacious  display 
of  federal  authority,  and  from  harmless  abuse  of  this 
work  and  the  workmen,  they  passed  to  more  serious 
talk,  and  some  to  threats  of  violence.  The  gap  in 
the  dam  was  closed.  The  schooner  "  Lake  Serpent,'' 
captain  Foster,  entered  the  river,  and  was  soon  after 
shut  in  below  the  dam  by  a  bar  at  the  mouth.  The 
captain  dug  a  way  out  for  her,  and  set  sail  in  a  rage, 
declaring  that  he  only  required  a  lease  of  life  until 
they  should  have  formed  a  harbor  upon  the  plan  now 
under  experiment.  The  moment  of  trial  had  now 
come,  and  the  fall  rains  began  to  raise  the  Cuyahoga, 
as  was  expected.  Men  with  saws  and  axes,  and  oxen 
with  chains  and  scrapers,  were  put  to  work  to  make  a 
trace  across  the  neck  and  lead  the  current  in  its  des- 


228  FUGITIVE     ESSAYS. 

tined  course.  On  the  morning  of  the  22d  of  October, 
after  the  work  had  been  prosecuted  many  hours  amid 
the  cold  storms  of  the  season,  and  while  the  dam  ap- 
peared about  to  yield  to  the  pressure  of  the  flood,  the 
water  began  to  flow  direct  to  the  lake,  through  the 
sand  and  flood-wood,  east  of  the  first  pier.  By  the 
time  this  flood  subsided  there  was  two  feet  water  in  the 
new  channel,  which  was  continually  enlarging.  When 
the  "Lake  Serpent"  returned  from  her  cruise,  she  found 
the  new  harbor  capacious  enough  to  admit  her  keel 
without  difficulty.  The  old  channel,  through  which 
water  no  longer  passed,  was  soon  sealed  up  with  sand, 
In  the  spring  of  1828,  the  eastern  pier  was  com- 
menced, beginning  at  the  water's  edge.  The  work 
has  progressed  steadily  until  1840,  at  a  cost  of  $77,- 
550. 

The  western  pier  was  soon  connected  with  the 
dam,  and  the  eastern  continued  in  a  southerly  direc- 
tion across  the  neck  to  the  river.  Both  have  been 
carried  outward  into  the  lake,  making  twelve  hundred 
feet  in  length.  About  four  hundred  feet  of  the  east- 
ern pier,  having  partially  decayed,  has  been  replaced 
by  heavy  cut  stone  masonry,  having  a  foundation  up- 
on the  original  work,  the  piles  and  stone  removed  be- 
low the  surface  of  low  water  in  the  lake.  It  is  pro- 
posed to  renew  the  whole  in  this  manner,  which  will 
leave  it  in  an  imperishable  state,  a  monument  of 
the  liberality,  grandeur,  and  utility  of  the  national 
Union  when,  perhaps,  that  institution  itself  shall  be 
known  only  in  the  history  of  things  that  were. 

In  the  year  1830,  a  light-house  was  built  on  land, 
itfl  base  seventy-five  and  its  light  one  hundred  and 
thirty-five  feet  above  the  lake.  Since  that  time  a 
beacon-light  has  been  erected  at  the  extremity  of  the 
eastern  pier,  about  forty  feet  in  height,  and,  in  a  meas- 
ure, superseding  the  light  on  Water  street. 


SKETCH  OF  CLEVELAND.  229 

The  elevation  of  the  surface  of  the  lake  fluctuates, 
in  the  extreme,  about  five  and  a  half  feet,  and  conse- 
quently the  expression  of  a  height  above  its  surface 
is  true  only  for  the  precise  time  when  it  was  taken. 
The  rise  and  depression  of  each  year  is  from  ten  to 
eighteen  inches,  being  at  high  water  late  in  the  spring 
and  low  water  late  in  the  fall  or  early  in  winter. 
The  general  period  of  high  water  may  be  half  a  cen- 
tury, or  even  more.  In  June,  1838,  the  rise  had 
reached  its  greatest  known  height  at  this  place.  The 
surface  on  the  25th  of  that  month  corresponded  with 
the  lower  face  of  the  second  course  of  masonry,  from 
the  top  of  the  east  pier  at  its  southern  extremity. 
At  this  time  it  ranges  about  two  and  a  half  below  that 
mark.  The  height  of  water  in  the  lakes,  like  that  in 
swamps  and  rivers  in  general,  is  controlled  by  the 
character  of  the  seasons,  and  needs  no  other  explana- 
tion. It  is  probable  that  the  settlement  of  the  coun- 
try has  a  tendency  to  increase  the  volume  of  water 
discharged  to  these  reservoirs  above  that  of  former 
times,  by  causing  a  more  rapid  drainage.  If  this  is 
true,  we  may  expect  a  higher  state  in  future  than  has 
been  experienced  for  the  past  fifty  years,  varying  di- 
rectly with  the  rain  guage  of  the  lake  country  and 
the  mean  temperature  of  the  atmosphere.* 

The  anticipated  importance  of  a  harbor  at  the 
Cuyahoga  has  been  fully  realized.  In  1840,  there 
passed  the  piers,  inward  bound,  one  thousand  three 
hundred  and  forty-four  vessels,  and  one  thousand 
and  twenty  steamboats.  Seven  steamboats,  fifty-four 
schooners,  and  two  brigs,  with  an  aggregate  tonnage 
of  nine  thousand  five  hundred  and  four,  belonged  to 
this  port.  The  tonnage  of  steamboats  entering  was 
three  hundred  and  fifty -seven  thousand,  of  vessels  one 

*  See  statistics  of  levels  at  the  end  of  this  article. 

20 


230  FUGITIVE  ESSAYS. 

hundred  and  twenty  thousand  nine  hundred  and  sixty* 
The  exports  for  that  year  were  estimated  at  five  mil- 
lion dollars  ;  of  which  two  million  one  hundred  thous- 
and bushels  of  wheat,  and  five  hundred  thousand  bar- 
rels of  flour,  formed  a  great  proportion. 

New  York,  by  way  of  Buffalo  and  Albany,  is  sev- 
en hundred  and  six  miles  ;  by  the  New  York  and  Erie 
Railroad,  six  hundred.  To  Philadelphia,  by  canal,  six 
hundred  and  nine;  by  road,  through  Pittsburgh  and 
Chambersburgh,  four  hundred  and  thirty-two.  To 
Baltimore,  by  Cumberland  and  the  Point  of  Rocks, 
four  hundred  and  fifty-three.  We  thus  perceive  how 
much  reason  General  Washington  and  Mr.  Jefferson 
had  to  suppose  that  produce  would  seek  the  Atlantic; 
ports  at  the  south,  rather  than  at  the  north,  so  far  M 
the  distances  are  concerned.  Furthermore,  it  was 
probably  known  to  them,  that  the  lake  is  open  for  nav- 
igation from  Cleveland  west;  earlier  in  the  spring 
than  it  is  farther  east.  From  1829  to  1887,  inclusive, 
the  average  difference  between  Cleveland  and  Buffalo, 
in  this  respect,  was  thirty-three  days—*\\\c  greatest 
difference  sixty-five  days,  the  least  three.  This  is  oc- 
casioned not  so  much  by  the  climate  as  other  causes. 
In  winter,  the  lake  is  never  wholly  closed  by  ice.  At 
this  place  its  width  is  about  sixty  miles.  Its  surface 
is  frozen  to  a  distance  of  twenty  miles  from  the 
shore,  but  probably  not  much  further ;  for  when  the 
south  wind  blows  long  off  shore,  the  ice  is  seen  to 
move  away  in  a  body,  and  frequently  passes  beyond 
the  range  of  view  from  the  top  of  the  light-house. 
To  effect  this,  it  must  proceed  twenty-five  or  thirty 
miles  from  the  American  side  towards  the  Canadian. 
If  it  floats  thirty  miles  from  shore,  there  arc  thirty 
miles  occupied  by  ice  formed  along  botli  shores  when 
driven  together  by  the  winds.  Now  when  the  iee 
breaks  up  in  the  spring,  the  westerly  winds  and  the 


SKETCH    OF    CLEVELAND.  231 

natural  flow  of  the  water  towards  Niagara  force  it  to- 
wards the  outlet  at  Buffalo,  thus  the  vacancy  in  the 
central  part  of  the  lake  affords  room  for  much  or  all 
of  the  ice  of  the  western  half.  Here  it  remains,  cho- 
king up  the  lake,  as  far  as  Ashtabula,  and  sometimes 
to  Fairport,  until  dissolved  by  the  influence  of  the  sun, 
or  broken  up  by  the  winds,  and  borne  by  the  current 
over  the  cataract  of  Niagara. 

Since  the  settlement  of  the  town,  the  waters  of  the 
lake  have  encroached  upon  its  site  at  the  rate  of  forty 
rods  or  one-eighth  of  a  mile  in  a  century.  The  dis- 
tance from  the  water's  edge  to  the  bend  of  the  Cuya- 
hoga, along  Ontario  street  and  the  public  square,  is 
but  little  over  half  a  mile ;  and  therefore  it  will  be 
seen  that  if  this  advance  should  go  on  unchecked,  the 
Cuyahoga  might  discharge  itself  between  Seneca  and 
Ontario  streets  within  five  hundred  years.  If  the 
slope  of  the  ground,  which  is  already  gone,  was  the 
same  as  that  which  remains  and  upon  which  the  town 
is  built,  it  would  descend  to  the  lake  level  within  two 
miles.  This  distance  would  consequently  be  the 
measure  of  the  recession  of  the  shore  at  this  place, 
and  fix  the  ancient  mouth  of  the  Cuyahoga  within  two 
miles  of  the  present  shore.  It  is  almost  certain,  that 
when  the  French  missionaries  rowed  along  these  shores, 
in  1673,  the  bluff  in  Ohio  City  and  that  in  Cleveland 
were  united,  and  the  river  passed  into  the  lake  at  the 
old  mouth  one  mile  westward. 

An  artificial  protection  against  the  inroads  of  the 
lake  was  made  along  a  part  of  the  front  of  the  city, 
from  Ontario  to  Seneca  streets,  in  1841.  It  consists 
of  a  breakwater  of  piles  and  stone,  and  a  grade  of  the 
bank  to  an  angle  of  quiescence,  which  is  about  four- 
teen degrees.  If  it  shall  prove  to  be  an  effectual  bar- 
rier, the  work  will  doubtless  be  extended  so  as  to  cover 
the  town. 


232  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

The  population  of  Cleveland,  in  1840,  was  6,071. 
The  largest  church  in  this  city  is  the  Presbyterian  ; 
there  is  one  Episcopal,  one  Methodist  Episcopal,  and 
one  Methodist  Protestant  church ;  also  one  Congre- 
gational, one  Dutch  Reformed  church,  and  a  syna- 
gogue of  Jews. 


MEASUREMENTS  UPON  THE  RISE  AND  FALL  OF  THE 
SURFACE  OF  THE  NORTHERN  LAKES. 

[True  Democrat,  Cleveland,  April  23,  1851. J 

Messrs.  Editors:  As  far  as  I  know,  there  are  no 
precise  data  by  which  to  determine  the  fluctuations 
in  the  waters  of  our  Northern  Lakes,  previous  to  the 
year  1819.  What  is  known  of  the  subject  prior  to 
that  time  rests  upon  tradition  or  vague  recollection, 
and  not  upon  recorded  measurements. 

Shortly  after  the  war  of  1812,  Colonel  Henry 
"Whiting,  a  Quartermaster  of  the  United  States  Army, 
stationed  at  Detroit,  made  regular  observations  in  the 
Detroit  River,  and  from  1819,  for  several  years,  he 
made  and  preserved  measurements  of  the  stage  of  the 
water. 

From  1828,  for  some  years,  A.  E.  Ilathon,  Esq., 
a  civil  engineer,  connected  with  the  old  water-works  at 
Detroit,  kept  an  account  of  the  height  of  the  water  at 
that  place  ;  and  in  1830  the  late  Dr.  Houghton  began 
to  make  his  observations. 

The  geological  reports  of  Michigan,  for  1839  and 
1841,  contain  the  substance  of  what  waa  known  re- 
specting lakes  Huron  and  Superior  at  that  time,  pre- 
pared by  Dr.  Houghton,  the  principal  geologist,  and 
by  S.  W.  Iliggins,  Esq.]  the  topographer  of  the  sur- 
vey. 


LAKE   LEVELS.  233 

When  the  Ohio  survey  was  in  progress,  some  in- 
formation was  collected,  principally  traditionary,  which 
may  be  seen  in  the  2d  Report,  pages  50,  51  and  52. 

The  first  daily  water  tables  kept  on  Lake  Erie, 
so  far  as  I  am  informed,  were  made  in  1838,  at  my 
request,  by  Mr.  George  C.  Davies,  under  the  direction 
of  A.  Walworth,  Esq.,  disbursing  agent  for  the  gov- 
ernment works  at  Cleveland. 

The  obseravtions  of  Mr.  Davies  were  made  almost 
hourly  (during  the  day),  from  the  18th  of  August  to 
the  1st  of  December,  upon  a  float,  placed  in  a  slip  near 
the  office,  where  the  water  was  not  disturbed  by  the 
waves.  While  they  were  continued  they  furnish  a 
faithful  and  perfect  representation  of  the  lake  surface. 

In  1844,  when  Colonel  T.  B.  W.  Stockton  took 
charge  of  the  construction  of  the  government  works 
at  the  harbor,  he  caused  a  meteorological  table  to  be 
kept,  which  is  very  complete  and  reliable. 

From  August,  1845,  to  August,  1846,  inclusive, 
Colonel  Stockton  added  a  water  table.  The  observa- 
tions were  taken  at  6  A.  M.,  at  noon,  and  6  p.  M.,  by 
Mr.  George  Tiebout,  of  this  city,  which  by  the  kind- 
ness of  Mr.  D.  P.  Rhodes,  late  disbursing  agent,  I 
have  in  my  possession. 

Since  1838,  I  have  occasionally  taken  the  height 
of  the  water,  but  not  with  any  approach  to  that  regu- 
larity and  system  which  is  necessary  to  give  value  to 
such  observations. 

The  most  extended  measurements  in  point  of  time 
have  been  made  at  Black  Rock,  N.  Y.  ;  but  at  what 
time  they  commenced,  or  whether  they  are  still  con- 
tinued, I  cannot  say,  not  having  as  yet  succeeded  in 
procuring  anything  more  than  occasional  published 
reports  from  the  Buffalo  papers.  They  are-  taken  by 
the  engineers  of  the  Erie  Canal,  which  is  supplied  by 
water  from  Lake  Erie ;  and  the  depth  of  water  on  the 
20* 


234  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

mitre  sill  of  the  guard-lock  at  Black  Rock  represents 
the  comparative  elevation  of  the  lake  at  that  place. 
It  is  probable  that  this  record  was  commenced  soon 
after  the  completion  of  the  canal  in  1825,  and  is  still 
continued. 

From  these  sources  I  have  formed  an  abstract  of 
the  rise  and  fall  of  this  and  other  lakes  since  1706, 
as  complete  as  the  present  state  of  information  in  my 
possession  will  allow,  embracing  the  traditionary  as 
well  as  the  authentic,  which  is  introduced  into  a  re- 
port recently  made  to  the  government  on  the  geology 
of  the  public  lands  of  the  upper  peninsula  of  Michigan, 

I  was  engaged  in  making  an  abstract  of  the  wa  tes- 
table of  Colonel  Stockton  for  publication  in  some  of 
our  city  papers,  by  condensing  the  daily  observations 
into  the  mean  expression  for  the  week,  when  the  re- 
quest, contained  in  your  editorial  of  the  14th  instant, 
fell  under  my  notice,  where  you  wish  to  have  some  theory 
or  explanation  given  of  the  reputed  rise  of  seven  years' 
duration  and  a  succeeding  fall  or  depression  of  seven 
years.  The  table  shows  no  such  regular  rise  and  fall ; 
and  the  only  theory  or  mystery  there  is  connected 
with  the  subject,  is  that  of  the  fluctuations  of  the  sea- 
sons, operating  upon  these  great  jionds  as  upon  all 
reservoirs  of  water.  When  rains  and  cloudy  and  cool 
weather  prevail  over  the  lake  country,  in  due  time  the 
lakes  and  rivers  rise,  and  when  the  reverse  happens 
they  sink  away. 

The  results  of  the  rain  guage  and  the  observations 
of  lake  levels  go  exactly  together.  There  is  also  an 
annual  rise  and  fall  owing  to  the  seasons.  But  the 
subject  is  a  long  one,  and  at  present  1  can  do  no  more 
than  promise  to  furnish  you  at  some  future  time  some 
figures,  showing  the  various  stages  of  the  lake  since 
1819,  by  recorded  observations,  from  which  every  one 
may  draw  their  own  conclusions. 


LAKE   LEVELS. 


235 


Lake  Levels. — 1845  &  184G. 

Abstract  of  the  Water  Table  in  Colonel  T.  B.  W.  Stockton's  Meteoro- 
logical Record,  kept  at  the  Harbor  Office  in  Cleveland. 

The  line  of  reference  is  the  high  water  line  of 
June,  1838,  being  the  highest  known  stage,  and  two 
feet  below  the  top  of  the  main  wall  of  the  East  Pier, 
400  feet  from  the  south  end  and  near  the  south  end 
of  the  parapet  wall,  which  is  four  feet  higher  than  the 
main  wall.  The  figures  show  the  depression  of  the 
water  surface  below  June,  1838,  giving  the  mean  of 
each  week's  observations  three  times  a  day. 

The  three  lines  of  figures  under  the  head  of  the 
month  represent  the  mean  height  at  6  A.  M.,  at  noon, 
and  6  P.  M.,  daily,  for  each  week. 


August,  1845. 


1st  WEEK. 

wanting. 

2d  WEEK. 

wanting. 

3(1   WEEK. 

2  ft.     9    in. 

2  ft.     6,7  in. 
2  ft.     7,6  in. 

4th  WEEK. 
2  ft.    8,9  in. 
2  ft.    8,9  in. 
2  ft.    9,1  in. 

MOICTHLT. 
MEAN. 

September,  1845. 

2  ft. 
2  ft. 
2  ft. 

11,4  in. 
9,1  in. 
8,8  in. 

2  ft.  11     in. 
2  ft.  11,3  in. 
2  ft.  10,7  in. 

3  ft.    0,8  in. 
3  ft.    0,1  in. 
2  ft.  11     in.    | 

3  ft.  1,7  in. 
3  ft.  0,6  in. 
3  ft.  0,9  in. 

3   ft. 
2  ft. 
2   ft. 

0,  3  in. 
11,  2  in. 
10,  8  in. 

October,  1815. 

3  ft. 
3  ft. 
3  ft. 

2,3  in. 
1,7  in. 
0,3  in. 

3  ft. 
3  ft. 
3  ft. 

2,3  in. 
1,3  in. 
0,9  in. 

3  ft.  3,0  in. 

3  ft.   0,3  in. 

3  ft.   2,1  in. 

November,  1845. 

3  ft.  3,7  in. 
3  ft.  3,9  in. 
3  ft.  3,8  in. 

3   ft. 

3  ft. 
3  ft. 

2,75  in. 
1,  8  in. 
1,  8  in. 

3  ft. 
3  ft. 
3  ft. 

2.0  in. 

2.1  in. 

2,S  in. 

3  ft. 
3  ft. 
3  ft. 

5,7  in. 
6,1  in. 
4,3  in. 

3  ft.   8,4  in. 
3  ft.   8,0  in. 
3  ft.   6,7  in. 

December,  1845. 

3  ft.  8,6  in. 
3  ft.  7,4  in. 
3  ft.  5,6  in. 

3  ft. 
3  ft. 
3  ft. 

6,18  in. 
5,  9  in. 
4,85  in. 

3  ft. 
3  ft. 
3  ft. 

7.6  in. 

8,1  in. 
5,0  in. 

3  ft. 

3  ft. 
3  ft. 

7,8  in. 
7,8  in. 
8,1  in. 

3  ft.  10,5  in. 

3  ft.  11,4  in. 

3  ft.  10,0  in. 

January,  1846. 

4  ft.  2,0  in. 
4  ft.  0,0  in. 
4  ft.  0,0  in. 

3  ft. 
3  ft. 
3  ft. 

9,9  in. 
9,9  in. 

8,8  in. 

4  ft. 
4  ft. 
3  ft. 

0,0  in. 
0,8  in. 
11,5  in. 

1    3  ft. 
4  ft. 

|    3  ft. 

11,7  in. 
0,4  in. 
11,1  in. 

4  ft.    1,3  in. 

4  ft.    0.5  in. 

4  ft.    0,0  in. 

February,  1846. 

4  ft.  1,8  in. 
4  ft.  2,0  in. 
4  ft.  2,7  in. 

1    4  ft. 

4  ft. 

1    4  ft. 

0,7  in. 
0,9  in. 
0,3  in. 

4  ft. 
4  ft. 
4  ft. 

2,1  in. 
2,5  in. 
2,3  in. 

1    4  ft. 
4  ft. 
4  ft. 

4,2  in. 
4.2  in. 
4,5  in. 

1    4  ft.    6,1  in. 
4  ft.    6,4  in. 
4  ft.    5,7  in. 

4  ft.  6,3  in. 
4  ft.  6,3  in. 
4  ft.  7,1  in. 

1    4  ft. 
4  ft. 
4  ft. 

4.7  in. 

4.8  in. 

4.9  in. 

236 


FUGITIVE     ESSAYS. 


March,  1846. 


4  ft. 
4  ft. 
4  ft 

8,8  in. 
OJ  in. 

5,3  in. 

4  ft. 
4  ft. 
4  ft. 

8.0  in. 

8.1  in. 
8,5  in. 

4  ft    6,5  in. 

4  ft.    4,7  in. 

1    4  ft    6,3  in. 

April,  1S46. 

1    4  ft.  2,7  in. 
4  ft.  2.5  in. 
4  ft.  2,7  in. 

1    4  ft 

4  ft. 
1    4  ft. 

6,5  in. 
M  in. 
5,7  in. 

4  ft. 
4  ft. 
4  ft 

1,5  in. 
2.3  in. 
1,3  in. 

4  ft. 
4  ft. 

4  ft. 

1,3  in. 
0,3  in. 
3,7  in. 

1    4  ft.    0.3  in. 

3  ft  11.8  in. 

[    3  ft.  11.: |  in 

May,  1S46. 

4  ft.  1,3  in. 
4  ft.  0,3  in. 
4  ft.  3,7  in. 

4  ft. 
4  ft 
4  ft 

1.1  in. 
0,6  in. 
2,0  in. 

3  ft. 
3  ft. 
3  ft 

6,3  in. 
»Vi  in- 
5,0  in. 

3  ft. 
3  ft. 
3  ft. 

3,1  in. 
3,3  in. 
3,5  in. 

2  ft.    9,0  in. 
2  ft  10  0  In. 
2  ft.  10,9  in. 

June,  1846. 

3  ft.  0,0  in. 
2  ft.  11,2  in. 
2  ft.  10,9  in. 

I    1  ft. 

3  ft. 

1    3  ft. 

1,2  in. 
2,0  in. 
1,7  in. 

2  ft. 
2  ft. 
2  ft. 

8,5  in. 
11,4  in. 
10,2  in. 

2  ft. 
2  ft. 
2  ft. 

10,5  in. 

9.0  in. 

10,7  in. 

2  ft.  10,5  in.    1 
2  ft.  10,1  in. 
2  ft.    8.1  in.    | 

July,  1846. 

2  ft.  10,5  in. 
2  ft.  11.5  in. 
2  ft  11,2  in. 

2  ft. 
2  ft. 
2  ft 

10,  4  in. 
10,  5  in. 
10,     in. 

1  ft. 

2  ft 
2  ft. 

7.0  in. 
8^  in. 
9,4  in. 

2  ft. 

•J  It 
2  ft. 

8.8  in. 

9,8  in. 

10,8  in. 

I    3  ft.   0.0  in. 
S  ft.  11,3  in. 
2  ft.    8,8  in. 

August,  1816. 

3  ft.  2,4  in. 
3  ft.  2,0  in. 
3  ft.  2,0  in. 

2  ft. 
2  ft. 
2  ft. 

10,5  in. 

l<»/»  i„. 
10,7  in. 

3  ft. 
3  ft. 
3  ft. 

1,S  in. 

1.1   in. 
1,7  in. 

3  ft. 
3  ft. 
3  ft. 

1.7  in. 
1.7  in. 
1.4  in. 

1    3  ft.  0,9  in. 

2  ft.   6.7  in. 

|    2  ft.  10,9  in. 

3  ft.  1,5  in. 
3  ft.  0,8  in. 
3  ft.  2,7  in. 

3  ft. 

2  ft. 

3  ft. 

1,5  in. 

ll.i.  in. 
1,2  in. 

Tl 

ic  lowest 
ic  highes 

stage  of  1S46  was  in  the  month  ol 
stage  of  1840  was  in  the  month 

March 

....  4  ft    5,H  in. 

Tl 

of  June 

....  2  ft- 10.1  ii 

Greatest  difference  of  the  monthly  mean  for  1S4G 1ft 


Beginning  at  December,  1845,  and  extending  to 
April,  1846,  the  general  surface  varied  only  about  7 
inches.  The  month  of  September,  1845  (2  ft.  11,4 
in.),  is  but  little  below  the  month  of  June,  1846,  or  2 
ft.  10,1  in.  The  last  two  weeks  of  August,  1845,  show 
a  higher  stage  than  any  part  of  1846,  or  2  ft.  8,7  in. 

This  table  illustrates  very  well  the  regular  annual 
rise  and  fall  which  has  always  been  noticed  by  those 
who  keep  these  lake  registers.  The  recession  from 
high  to  low  is  as  systematic  and  certain  as  the  seasons, 
but  the  month  in  which  high  water  of  one  year  occurs 
may  not  be  the  same  as  another,  and  the  same  of 
low  water.  In  general  the  lowest  ebb  occurs  in 
the  latter  part  of  winter,  when  the  supply  of  water 
has  been  long  withheld  bj  the  presence  of  snow  nkI 
frost.     The  flood  of  the  season  happens  generally  in 


LAKE   LEVELS. 


237 


June,  when  the  streams  have  discharged  the  surplus  of 
the  spring  months. 

The  following  average  of  each  month  in  1846  shows 
the  perfect  regularity  of  the  annual  elevation  and  de- 
pression. If  we  had  as  perfect  a  table  for  several  con- 
secutive years  as  we  have  for  this,  a  yearly  abstract 
would  show  the  general  elevation  and  depression  in 
the  same  way. 

September,   1845 average,  2  feet  11,4  inches 

October,          «       "  3  "  2,4  " 

November,      «       "  3  "  5,6  " 

December,       "       "  3  "  9,5  " 

January,       1846 "  4  «  0,6  " 

February,       " "  4  «  4,8  " 

Marcb,            "       "  4  "  5,8  « 

April,              "       "  4  «  1,2  « 

Mav,                <;       "  3  «  1,6  " 

June,               ,;       u  2  "  10,1  « 

.July,                "       "  2  «  10,7  " 

August,          "       "  3  ■  00,7  " 


A  Table  showing  the  highest  and  loiccst  stage  of  water  in  Lake  Erie  for 
each  month,  from  August,  1845,  to  August,  1846,  inclusive,  drawn 
from  Colonel  T.  B.  W.  Stockton's  Meteorological  Record,  as  kept  at 
the  government  works  on  the  Harbor  at  Cleveland.  Zero  of  reference, 
the  high  water  of  June,  1838. 


August,  ItAi. 

Several  times 

6  A.M.  14th 

September, 

A.  M.  of  5th,  and  M.  of  24th 

Noon  of  26th 

October. 

3d,  6  P.  M 

24th,  6  A.  M 

November. 

Eve.  of  2d  and  A.  M.  of  3d 

Morn,  of  19,  at  4  A.  M.,  water 
settled  to   6  ft.  2   in.  B.   for  a 

short  time 

December. 

1st  morning 

16th  morning 

27  th  noon 

January,  1846. 

31st  morning 

10th  noon 

ISth  morning 


WINDS,  ETC. 


wind  southerly  ... 
high  south  wind 


heavy  N.  W . 

lights.  W... 


high  N.  E. 
lights 


gale  N.  E. 


high  N.E.. 
fresh  S.  W. 
fresh  N 


niGH 

WATER 


1  strong  S.  W.    .. 

IgaleN.E 

breeze  north 2  ft 

fresh  breeze  S.  W. 


below  ° 
2  ft.  6 


2  ft.  6 

2  ft.  8 

3  ft.  8 

[3  ft.  6 


3  ft.  5 


difference 


below0 

3  ft.  4    0  ft.10 

3  ft.  7l  1  ft.  1 


3  ft.10 


4  ft.ll 


4  ft.  9 
4  ft.  10 


1  ft.  2 


2  ft.  0 


1  ft.  5 


238 


FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 


Table  Continued. 


February. 

10th,  morning , 

21st,  morning 

Miircli. 

30th.  morning 

7  th,  noon 

April. 

-T>th,  noon 

27th  noon 

•5l>th,  evening 

Uth,  evening 

At  3  P.  M.,  5  ft.  6  in.  B 

May. 
1Mb  evening  and  19th  morning 

Jd,  noon 

jth  and  6th  noon 

Junt. 

-d    morning 

20th.  evening 

21st,  morning 

30th,  morning 

Uth,  morning 

July. 

11th,  6  A.  M 

21st,6A.M 

August. 
18th.  noon  [average  of  the  18th, 

2  ft.  0,6  in.]  

30th,  6  P.  M 

At  noon  3  ft.  2 


wim^.  no, 


fresh  X.  W. 
high  S.  W.. 


tneb  W. 

light  W.. 


heavy  gale  N.  E. 

do.       do.      do. 

do.       do.      do. 
heavy  W 


•rale  X 

lights 

light  N.E... 

ftwhN.W. 

highN 

gale  X.  E.... 
fresh  smith . 
breeze  X.... 


light  south, 
do.     do... 


breeze  X , 

ir.  <•/.•  N.  K. 


HIGH         LOW 

WATKR    WATER 


MOMTBL1 

I  flVrenci 


3  ft.  10; 


4  ft  0, 


16  ft  1 


16  ft.  0 


1  ft  3 
1  ft  0 


3  ft.  6 
3  ft  fil 
3  ft  6i 

5  ft.  0    1  ft  6 


2  ft  9 


2  ft.  6 

2  ft.  6 

2  ft.  6 

2  ft.  6 


2  ft  6 


lft.  10 


3  ft  9 
3  ft  9 


3  ft.  2 
3  ft.  4 


3  ft  4 


1  ft.  0 


Oft  8 
Oft.  10 


4  ft.  9    2  ft.  II 


It  is  apparent  from  this  exhibit  that  north-east 
winds  and  gales  prevail  over  those  of  any  other 
direction,  and  produce  most  uniform,  effects  in  heap- 
ing or  raising  the  waters  at  this  place ;  and  also  that 
south-west  winds  have  the  contrary  effect,  and  drive 
out  and  depress  the  water  of  the  lake. 

Of  twenty-one  cases  of  extreme  high  water  above 
given,  eight  arc  due  to  north-east  winds,  three  to  south 
Winds,  and  three  to  north-west. 

Of  sixteen  instances  of  low  water,  two  are  con- 
nected with  north-east  winds,  two  with  westerly,  and 
five  with  south-west  winds. 

High  water  occurred  oftencr  in  the  morning  than 


LAKE   LEVELS.  239 

at  noon  or  evening,  and  the  same  of  low  water,  which 
is  a  consequence  of  the  changes  that  occur  in  the 
land  and  sea  breezes  near  the  commencement  and 
close  of  the  day;  The  water  has  been  high  in  the 
morning  (6  A.  M.)  ten  times,  in  the  evening  five,  at 
noon  twice. 

It  has  been  low  in  the  morning  seven  times,  at  noon 
six,  in  the  evening  twice. 

The  greatest  fluctuations  take  place  in  the  morn- 
ing ;  of  which  the  most  extreme  case  on  these  records 
occurred  on  the  morning  of  November  19,  1845,  after 
two  days'  light  breeze  south,  changing  to  high  south- 
west winds.  The  water  then  fell  20  inches  below  the 
bottom  of  the  stone  wall,  or  to  6  feet  2  inches. 

It  is  apparent,  from  the  column  of  "  differences  " 
in  the  preceding  table>  how  little  reliance  can  be  placed 
on  a  single  measurement,  and  how  necessary  it  is  to 
have  a  daily  register  in  order  to  arrive  at  the  mean 
surface  of  the  lake.  Winds  not  felt  at  this  point  may 
affect  the  stage  of  water  materially. 


Lake  Levels. — General  Abstract. 

Messrs.  Editors  :  I  am  unable  to  present  you  at 
this  time  a  perfect  table  of  the  reported  stages  of  wa- 
ter in  Lake  Erie,  on  account  of  the  difficulty  of  redu- 
cing observations  taken  at  different  points  of  the  lake, 
at  different  times,  and  referred  to  different  lines  of 
level,  to  one  standard  of  zero. 

At  Detroit,  the  loiv  water  of  August,  1819,  is  ta- 
ken as  the  line  of  reference,  counting  upivard. 

At  Cleveland,  we  use  the  high  water  line  of  June, 
1838,  as  zero,  and  count  downwards. 

At  Black  Rock  they  reckon  from  the  mitre  sill  of 
the  guard-lock,  and  give  the  depth  of  water  at  the 
lock.     There  is  another  zero  used  at  Buffalo  harbor, 


240  FUGITIVE  ESSAYS. 

which  is  5   feet  4  inches  below  the  high  water  of 
June,  1838. 

If  we  had  consecutive  observations  at  all  these  pla- 
ces, even  for  one  months  a  pretty  close  reduction  could 
be  made  of  the  different  zeros,  or  standard  lines,  to 
each  other ;  but  as  yet  I  have  found  only  part  of  a 
month  on  which  reliance  can  be  placed ;  and  as  the 
lake  is  never  precisely  level,  there  might  be  a  differ- 
ence or  error  in  the  comparison  greater  than  the  mean 
annual  change  of  surface. 

I  give  you,  however,  a  few  tables  drawn  from  read- 
ings at  the  above  places,  which  serve  as  well  to  show 
the  fluctuations  at  these  places  as  if  the  absolute 
average  rise  and  fall  of  all  parts  of  the  lake  was 
known,  and  reduced  to  one  standard.  This  is  done 
by  taking  the  stage  of  water  in  the  same  month, 
through  a  series  of  years. 

Different  observers  do  not  agree  as  to  the  precise 
time  of  either  the  highest  or  lowest  general  state  of 
the  water.  Here,  it  was  unquestionably  the  highest 
about  the  25th  of  June,  1838,  when  it  was  2  feet  5 
inches  below  the  surface  of  the  main  wall  at  the  south 
end  of  the  east  pier ;  2  feet  below  the  same  wall  400 
feet  from  the  south  end ;  6  feet  4  inches  below  the 
coping  of  the  lock  at  the  Cuyahoga  river,  at  Merwin 
street  (on  the  west  wing  wall);  3  feet  88-100  below  the 
water  table  of  the  Commercial  House,  corner  of  Main 
and  river  streets,  Ohio  City ;  and  was  also  on  a  level 
with  the  heads  of  the  piles  on  the  river,  at  the  Morocco 
Factory  on  the  flats. 

These  marks  and  benches  were  established  by  Mr. 
Howe,  the  re&ideat  engineer  of  this  division  of  the 
Ohio  canal,  by  General  Ahaz  Merchant,  by  Colonel  T. 
B.  W.  Stockton,  and  by  myself,  independently  of  each 
other,  and  will  probably  some  of  them  remain  for  fu- 
ture reference,  through  all  time. 


LAKE   LEVELS.  241 

At  Detroit,  and  Black  Rock,  the  highest  stage  is 
stated  to  have  been  in  August,  and  not  in  June,  1838  ; 
but  at  Buffalo  it  is  given  in  the  month  of  June.  Some 
observers  place  the  lowest  water  in  August,  and  some 
in  the  fall  of  1819;  others  .in  Autumn,  1820;  and  at 
Buffalo  there  is  a  tradition  that  in  1810  it  was  still 
lower. 


COMPARISON 

Of  (lit  stage  of  water  in  the  month  of  June,  for  several  years  at 

Cleveland. 

1832.  below,  June,  1838 2  ft.    6  inches. 


1833, 
1834, 
1835, 
1837, 


.2  ft. 

..2  ft.    7 

,.2  ft.  10 

..2  ft.    7 

,.t)  ft. 


ft.    9 

(mean  of  the  month,)..... 2  ft.  10 

1850,    «  «*        "   (one  measurement) ............3  ft.    0       " 

COMPARISON 

For  the  month  of  June,  at  Detroit. 

1828,  below,  August,  1838 3  ft.  2  inches. 

1830,    "  "  u     4  ft.  2        " 

1836,  "  "  "      2  ft.  4        " 

1837,  "  "  "      1  ft.14        * 

1840,     "  "  "     (one  measurement) 2  ft.  4        " 

COMPARISON 

For  the  month  of  August,  at  Black  Rock. 

1828,  above,  August,  1820 2  ft.  6  inches. 

1830,     "  "  "     2  ft.  6  " 

1836,  «  "  "     3  ft.  6  « 

1837,  "  "  "     4  ft.  0  " 

1838,  «  "  "     5  ft.  1  " 

1839,  «  «  "     3  ft.10  " 

1840,  «  "  "     2  ft.  7  " 

1841,  "  «  «     0  ft.  9  " 

In  these  abstracts  we  have  all  of  the  years  from 
1828  to  1841,  except  one,  and  when  the  measurements 
at  the  several  places  can  be  reduced  *to  one  common 
line  or  plane  of  reference,  a  statement  of  the  abso- 
lute elevation  and  depression  of  the  lake  for  those 
thirteen  years  can  be  made  out. 
21 


242  FUGITIVE     ESSAYS. 

Owing  to  the  form  of  the  shores  which  approach 
each  other  at  Buffalo,  the  greatest  temporary  fluctua- 
tions take  place  there.  The  greatest  measured  local 
range,  as  given  by  a  correspondent  of  the  Buffalo 
Commercial  Advertiser,  is  fifteen  feet  six  inches  ;  the 
highest  stage  occurred  during  a  furious  down-lake 
storm,  October  18  and  19,  1844  ;  the  lowest,  under 
an  up-lake  gale,  April  18,  1848. 

Cleveland  being  near  the  broadest  part  of  the  lake, 
and  towards  the  middle  of  its  length,  is  less  affected 
of  than  places  at  either  extremity,  but  here  a  difference 
more  than  three  feet  has  been  observed  in  the  same  day. 

It  should  not  be  forgotten  that  the  preceding  ta- 
ble is  not  absolute.,  but  only  comparative,  showing  the 
rise  and  fall  of  corresponding  months  in  different 
years.  June  is  generally  a  high  month,  and  Februa- 
ry a  low  one;  but  this  is  not  invariably  the  case;  so 
that  the  average  of  years  can  not  be  had  by  knowing 
how  the  water  stood  in  the  same  months.  To  obtain 
this*,  we  want  all  the  months  of  the  year,  and  daily 
observations  for  each  month. 

From  the  above  it  will  be  seen  that  the  greatest 
well  ascertained  difference  of  level  at  Cleveland  is 
between  June,  1838,  and  June,  1846,  2  feet  10  inches; 
at  Detroit,  from  August,  1828,  to  August,  1837,  1 
foot  3  inches  ;  at  Black  Rock,  between  August,  1838, 
and  August,  1841,  4  feet  4  inches ;  at  Buffalo  (by 
single  measurement),  between  May,  1840,  and  May, 
1846,  1  foot  9  inches ;  results  do  not  agree  very  well 
with  each  other* 


January  26,  18olf. 

Rise  and  Fall  of  Water  in  Lake  Erie. 

Messrs.  Editors  :  You  published  last  spring  the 
details  of  Colonel  Stockton's  daily  register  of  lake  lev- 


LAKE   LEVELS.  243 

els  at  this  place  for  1845-6,  and  some  other  statistics 
on  the  same  subject.  I  then  stated  that  all  of  the  re- 
corded observations,  at  various  points  on  the  lake,  were 
not  in  my  possession,  but  at  some  future  time,  when 
they  should  be  collected  and  compared,  I  would  give 
you  the  general  result. 

So  far  as  I  have  been  able  to  discover,  I  now  have 
them  all ;  some  taken  at  Detroit,  others  at  Black 
Rock  and  Buifalo,  and  others  here ;  but  none  of  the 
daily  observations  extending  through  more  than  two 
years  at  either  place.  I  propose  to  give  them  for 
each  of  those  places,  by  themselves,  in  the  terms  in 
which  they  are  kept,  referring  to  the  local  zero  or 
plane  of  reference.  This  will  occupy  about  a  column 
of  your  paper,  and  will  be  useful  to  subsequent  ob- 
servers at  those  points.  From  the  whole,  some  gene- 
ral conclusions  can  be  drawn,  showing  1st,  the  mean 
annual  rise  and  fall ;  2d,  the  greatest  temporary  fluc- 
tuations known ;  3d,  the  greatest  mean  and  total 
yearly  fluctuations  known.  It  will  be  seen  from  these 
tables  how  imperfect  these  observations  have  been  hith- 
erto, with  the  exception  of  the  years  1839  and  1840-41 
at  Detroit ;  the  years  1838, 1845-46  and  1851  at  Cleve- 
land, and  1840-41, 1850-51  at  Black  Rock  and  Buffalo. 

It  has  not  been  easy  to  reduce  the  whole  to  a  com- 
mon standard,  or  plane  of  reference  for  all  parts  of 
the  lake,  because  its  surface  is  very  seldom  level. 
The  observations  at  Black  Rock  present  greater  dis- 
crepancies than  any  other,  but  should  not  be  discard- 
ed ;  and  I  mention  it  because  future  detailed  obser- 
vations may  show  some  errors  in  my  tables,  arising 
from  this  cause. 

The  Cleveland  and  Buffalo  zeros  have  been  com- 
pared by  several  months'  consecutive  readings,  by 
Mr.  Lothrop  and  myself  in  1851 ;  Mr.  Lothrop's  daily, 
and  mine  as  often  as  circumstances  would  permit. 


244  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

The  month  of  July,  1851,  was  very  quiet,  and  at 
Cleveland  the  water  did  not  vary  to  exceed  (2)  two 
inches  during  the  month.  The  average  is  (1)  one  foot 
11J  inches  below  zero.  The  average  of  about  sixty 
readings  at  Buffalo  is  9  feet  47-100,  for  the  depth  of 
water  in  the  canal ;  and  if  the  water  line  between 
Cleveland  and  Buffalo  was  level,  as  it  should  be,  if  it 
ever  is,  during  that  month  of  calms,  the  Cleveland 
zero  is  (11)  eleven  feet  42-100  above  the  Buffalo  zero, 
or  bottom  of  the  Erie  enlarged  canal. 

In  Detroit,  taking  the  months  of  July,  August, 
September,  and  October,  1838,  as  frequently  measured 
during  those  months,  at  both  places,  the  water  at 
Cleveland  was  at  an  average  of  (1)  one  foot  (1)  one 
inch  below  zero;  and  at  Detroit  (4)  four  feet  (6)  six 
inches  below  the  water  table  of  the  hydraulic  tower ; 
and  therefore  the  Detroit  zero  is  (if  the  waters  were 
level  and  adding  the  descent  of  the  river)  (3)  three  feet 
(5)  five  inches  above  the  Cleveland  zero,  and  (14)  four- 
teen feet  (10)  ten  inches  above  the  bottom  of  the  Erie 
Canal. 

By  the  use  of  these  figures,  if  readings  of  the 
stage  of  the  water  are  had,  at  one  of  the  cities  above 
named,  say  for  a  month  consecutively,  and  not  at  the 
others,  and  it  should  be  desirable  to  ascertain  the 
level,  it  could  be  arrived  at  very  nearly  by  calculation. 

For  instance :  we  have  for  the  summer  of  1840 
and  1841,  the  monthly  mean  at  Black  Rock,  and  no 
register  at  Cleveland,  but  could  make  out  a  theoretical 
table  for  these  months,  which  would  be  nearer  the 
truth  than  a  few  straggling  measurements.  So  for 
those  years  in  the  local  tables  following,  which  are 
wanting ;  by  a  good  average  or  yearly  mean,  taken 
at  another  part  of  the  lake,  a  close  approximation 
could  be  made.  And  hereafter,  when  the  subject 
shall  be  more  fully  investigated,  by  watching  the  ruin 


WATER   LEVELS. 


245 


(juage,  and  knowing  the  general  quantity  of  water 
which  falls  in  the  lake  region,  the  stage  of  the  water 
may  be  safely  predicted  for  the  coming  year. 

It  would  not  be  correct  to  make  one  or  two  read- 
ings in  a  month,  and  call  these  the  average,  and  use 
them  to  calculate  levels  elsewhere.  It  is  in  this  res- 
pect that  the  tables  are  defective  ;  but  we  must  take 
them  as  they  are,  and  make  the  most  of  them  ;  hoping 
that  for  future  years  they  may  be  more  full.  If  light- 
house keepers,  were  required  to  note  the  state  of  the 
water  daily,  the  object  would  be  sooner  accomplished. 

Instead  of  traditions,  we  should  have  accurate 
data,  and  practical  benefits  as  well  as  scientific  in- 
formation would  be  cheaply  obtained.  The  construc- 
tion of  harbors,  wharves,  and  warehouses  could  be 
planned  with  intelligence,  as  to  depth  of  water  and 
elevation  above  it,  as  experience  should  fix,  the 
amount  and  limit  of  fluctuation  in  the  lake  surface. 


Water  Levels. — Detroit  River. — 1819  to  18-jO. 

Taken  from  the  Register  of  A.  E.  Hathan,  Esq.,  Civil  Engineer. 

Zero — the  top  of  Water  Table  of  Hydraulic  Works. 


Date. 


1819,  June, 
Lowest  known  stngi-.... 


i; 

9$, 


8,45 


lS28and  1830,  June  ... 
1836  "     ... 

1SI57  "      ... 

1838,  August  21 

Highest  known  stage., 


ft,45 
1,79 

3,20 


'I       Sftl 


2.00  2,00 
3,66  1,66 
4,25  0,59 


5,25   1,00 


1838,  average  of  live  last  month?.  4,25  4,2.) 


H3),     average  of    six   masure- 
ments  during  the  year. 
1840. 
17  measurements 


5,58 ;  2,87: 
6.-5!  1,90 


tall 


high 


LQ5 


Aug 


1,33  JMj. 


21* 


6,97  J'ly 
*  Colonel  H.  Whiting. 


Feb. 

Mar. 


Dee. 

Jan. 

'39 

Jan. 

Jan. 


it-is 


high 'low 


3,20 

4.5:; 


<>.*> 


7,68 

7.92 


C.r. 


.3,16 

•2.09 


246 


FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 


Table  Continued. 


Date. 


1841. 
12  measurements 

1842. 

January  31 

June  lBt 

Lowest  stage  since  1819... 


July  1st.... 
October  24.. 


March  21. 
May  3d.... 


1843. 
"mi" 
"1849." 


jJuly  5., 


1850. 


M 


T.r.r. 


T*8 

7,80 


7,53 

6,13 

6,28 
5,53 

5,58 


0.90 


0>7 
o..V.< 


=  -.  ~ 
is  E  2 


rise 


fall. 


high  low.  high 


1,09 


ja.fe 
Aug  Mar 


of  8 
years,  120 


0,fJ 

■:;.;■: 

•J.  17 
2,93 

2,87 


Ill 


«  ^  s 

lljj 


II 

»  5 


6,61 


mean  of  4 
years. 


low. 


7,63 


1,02 

•J.9«i 


Abstract  of  Water  Levels  at  Cleveland,  Ohio. 
1796  to  1852. 

The  measurements  commence  at  1826.  Prior  to 
this  date  we  have  nothing  but  estimates,  which  were 
made  by  Mr.  Alonzo  Carter,  Leonard  Case,  Esq.,  Mr. 
Levi  Johnson,  and  others  of  the  old  settlers.  A.  Wal- 
worth, Esq.,  while  government  agent  for  the  harbor 
works,  noted  the  height  of  water  occasionally,  from 
1826  to  1838,  when  by  his  request  Mr.  George  C. 
Davies  kept  a  daily  register,  from  July  to  December 
of  that  year.  The  figure  for  January,  1837,  is  given 
by  A.  Merchant,  Esq.  From  August,  1845,  to  Au- 
gust, 1846,  we  have  Colonel  Stockton's  daily  register, 


WATER  LEVELS. 


247 


and  from  that  time,  reading  more  or  less  frequent 
by  myself,  made  as  often  as  circumstances  would  per- 
mit. 


Date  and  Remarks. 

if  j 

Mean  yearly 
difference. 

High  and  low 
month. 

Greatest  observed 

range  within  the 

year. 

rise. 

fall. 

high. 

low. 

high. 

low. 

1796 

low. 

5  ft. 
low. 

6  ft. 

"  5  ft. 
«  2  ft. 
"2  ft 
"  6  ft. 

"5ft. 

"  4  ft. 
2  ft.  10 

slight. 

slight. 

2  ft.  6 

3  ft.  0 

1ft.  0 
1ft.  0 
1  ft.   2 

slight. 

4  to  5 

4  ft. 

Oft.  4 
Oft.  3 

Fall 
June. 

June. 
June. 

June. 
Aug. 

March 

2  ft.  6 
2  ft.  8 

2  ft.  C 

3  ft.  2 

3  ft.  8 

1 

4  ft.  8 
4f.5,8 

2f.6 

0f.8 
lf.0 

Of.6 

0  11 

{< 

2f.2 

1798 

1802 

1806 

1810-11 

1813 

1814 

1815,  June               f  very 
'•    Fall  months  <   wet 

1816,  Spring (years 

1819,  late  in  summer  very 

dry  '17-18 

Lowest  known  stage 

1822 

1825 

1826 , 

1832 

2  ft.  10  0  ft.  0 

1833 

3  ft.  2 
2  ft.   7 

2  ft.  10 

3  ft.  4 
3  ft.   1 

2  ft.  7 

3  ft.   6 
1ft.  0 
Oft.  4 
Oft.  00 

Oft.  3 
Of.934 

1  f.2k 

2  ft.   9 
2  ft.   5 

2  f.  8,3 
21  f.14 
3f.   16 

3  f.  5,6 

3  f.  9,5 

4  f.  0,6 
4  f.  4,8 
4  f.  5,8 

2  ft.  7 

1834,  June 

1835,     *     

1839,  January 

1838,  May  10 

"    June  12 

Highest  known  stage 

1838,  July  12 

"     Sept.,       " 

«    Oct.,        "         ■ 

1841,  March  11 

1842,  April  14 

"    November 

''    December 

I 

~l 

248 


FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 


Table  Continued. 


Date  and  Remarks. 


s.a 


■2  g 


1846,  April 

"     May 

"     June 

"     August 

1848,  October  10 

1850,  June  20 

1851,  January  6 

"        18 

"    June  5 

"        "  15 

"    July— Mean  of  eight 
measurements   in  a  1 

weather 

"     August  3d 

7th 

"     September  19th 

"    Octobur— mean  of  5 

measurements  

"    November — 1 2  mea.. 
"    December — S  mea 


f.1,2 
f.  1,6 
f.  10 
f.0,7 
f.  8 
f.  11 
f.  8 
f.  2 
f.  11 
f.  11 


1IU 

8* 

f.     3 

f.  5 
f.  8 
f.  12 


Mean    yearly 
difference. 


rise. 


f.    0 


fall. 


0  f.  4,4 


High  and  low 
month. 


high.  j  low. 


June. 


Jan. 


June. 
July. 
Aug. 


Greatest  observed 

range  within  the 

year. 


high. 


2  ft. 
10ft.l 


If.  11 


tow. 


4ft.2 


1  77 


219 


Mean  annual  difference  of  level  (in  four  best  .ascertained  years) 1  ft.  8  in. 

Greatest  annual  difference  of  level 2  ft.  2  in. 

Least  annual  difference  of  level 0  ft.  0  in. 

Mean  of  observed  fluctuations  within  the  year  (four  best  years) 2  ft.  0  in. 

Greatest                         "                  "           "  2  ft.  •".  in. 

Least                              "                  "           « lft.llin. 

For  1*45-6,  the  mean  of  the  greatest  transient  fluctuation  for  13  months, 
as  shown  by  the  daily  record,  arising  from  winds  and  storms,  within 

each  month  is 1  ft.  |  in. 

The  greatest  temporary  height  from  local  and  sudden  causes,  such  as 

storms,  stood— below  zero 1  ft. 10  in. 

The  greatest  depression  from  like  causes 6  fi.'i  I  in. 


In  certain  ports  of  Lake  Superior  and  Lake  Michi- 
gan, such  movements  take  place  several  times  a  <l;iv, 
sometimes  within  a  few  minutes  of  each  other,  the 
water  rising  and  falling  from  half  a  foot  to  (3)  three 
feet. 


WATER  LEVELS. 


249 


Water  Levels  at  Black  Rock  and  Buffalo. — 1819  to  1851. 

Taken  from  the  Buffalo  Commercial  Advertiser,  and  the  Register  of 
John  Lothrop,  Civil  Engineer — measurements  reduced  to  the  Buffa- 
lo zero,  or  bottom  of  the  enlarged  canal,  which  is  one  (l)foot  below 
the  mitre  sill  of  the  Guard  lock  at  Black  Rock. 


Date  and  Remarks. 


1813-20—  August 

Lowest  known  stage.... 

182S— August. 

1830         "         

1836         "        

1839         «        ..... 

1838         "        

Highest  known  stage... 

1839— 

May  11 

August , 

October 

1840,  Monthly  average 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September 

October , 

1841— 

May , 

June 

July 

August 

September 

October 

Lowest  since  1819 

1842,  May  5 

1843  (estimate)  May  15. 

1844,  May  12 

1845,  "    15 

1846,  «    16 

1847,  "    16 

1848,  "    1st 

1849,  "    19 

1850,  "      8 

(Mean  of  daily  obs.) 

November 

December 


Depth  of 
water  in 
canal. 


ft.  &  100 


8,80 

8,80 

9,80 

10,30 

11,40 


9,50 
10.13 
10,30 


Height 
above 
1819-20. 


2,50 
2,50 


4,00 
5,10 


Mean. 
3, 


10,33 
10,90 
10,33 
10.40  Mean  of 

9,30  6  nrths. 

9,10  2,60 


9,50 
9,24 

8,80 
8,30 
7,75 
6,80 


9,21 
9,30 
8,30 
8,80 
8,46 
9,40 


7,71 

7,83 


Mean  of 

6  m'ths. 

2,41 


2,66 
2,91 
3,00 
2,00 
2,50 
2,16 
3.10 
2,66 


Mean    yearly 
difference. 


1,00 
0,50 
1,10 


0,25 
0,09 


0,50 
0,94 


1,27 


1,23 


0,94 

1,00 

0,34 
0,44 


Greatest    observed 
fluctuations. 


Oct. 


high. 


Idif  in 
theyr. 


Aug. 


Oct. 


June. 


May. 


1,23 


250 


FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 


Table  Continued. 


Date  and  Remarks. 


Depth  of 
water  in 
canal. 


lit. 


Height 

above 

1819-20. 


Mean    yearly 
difference. 


fall. 


Greatest    observed 
fluctuations. 


•  ;«*•£  5: 


January ... 
February.., 

March 

April 

May 

.lune 

July 

August , 

September 
October.... 
November.. 


7,88 

7.86 

8,40 

8,47 

8,59 

9,34 

9.46 

9.34 

9,07  J  mean  of 

9,13  12  niths. 

9,21 1         2,21 


0,37 


July. 


1,75 


Mean  annual  difference  of  four  best  ascertained  years 0,89 

(,'rrdlrst  annual  difference 1,27 

Least  annual  difference 0,37 

GreaJtst  temporary  fluctuation  within  the  year- 2.64 

Least  "  "  "  "  0.M) 

Mean  of  fluctuations 1,40 


The  columns  of  "mean  yearly  difference"  and  of 
"greatest  temporary  fluctuations"  do  not  in  all  cases 
represent  those  facts  truly,  on  account  of  the  diverse 
character  of  the  registers,  and  the  difficulty  of  combin- 
ing all  the  facts  in  one  table.  For  instance,  the  an- 
nual or  mean  yearly  difference  sometimes  expresses 
the  difference  between  the  same  month  of  two  consecu- 
tive years,  instead  of  the  mean  of  the  two  years  com- 
pared with  each  other.  The  measurements  are  so 
incomplete  that  this  is  often  the  best  difference  that 
can  be  had.  In  the  column  of  ** temporary  fluctua- 
tions," or  difference  within  the  year,  the  figures  do 
not  show  the  extreme  elevation  or  depression  caused 
by  violent  storms,  but  a  temporary  high  or  low  stage 
of  a  month  or  less. 

The  column  of  high  and  low  months  is  given  to 


WATER   LEVELS.  251 

show  the  remarkable  uniformity  of  high  and  low  wa- 
ter, as  to  season  of  the  year.  At  Buffalo  and  Black 
Rock  there  is  less  regularity  than  elsewhere,  showing 
that  winds,  and  the  form  of  the  coast,  produce  irregu- 
larities there  that  are  local. 

For  (5)  five  years  high  water  occurred  there — in 
July,  once  ;  June,  once  ;  May,  once  ;  August,  once  ; 
and  October,  once.  For  the  winter  months,  when  the 
water  is  low,  the  measurements  are  wanting. 

At  Detroit  there  are  several  years  when  there  was 
little  variation  during  two  or  three  months.  In  four 
years  (not  consecutive,  but  those  best  ascertained) 
it  was  high  in  June,  and  July  three  times,  and  August 
once;  and  January,  February,  and  March  (which 
were  about  equal)  once. 

At  Cleveland,  in  five  years  well  ascertained,  high 
water  has  been  in  June,  four  times;  and  June,  July, 
and  August  (about  equal)  once.  Low  in  January, 
once;  December,  twice;  March,  once,  and  August 
once. 

So  that  out  of  fourteen  cases  where  the  highest 
months  have  been  registered,  it  has  been  high  in  June 
and  July  (10)  ten  times,  and  in  (10)  ten  cases  has 
been  low  in  December  and  January  (6)  six  times.  It 
is  like  other  ponds  and  rivers,  raised  by  the  spring 
freshets,  and  lowered  by  frost  and  drought  of  winter. 

I  am  unable  to  find  in  these  tables  any  confirma- 
tion of  the  popular  belief,  that  there  is  a  "  seven  years' 
rise  and  fall"  of  the  water  in  the  lakes. 

The  Detroit  registers  show  a  continual  rise,  from 
1819  to  1838,  or  nineteen  years. 

From  1838  to  1841,  a  continual  decline  of  three 
years.  In  1842,  a  slight  rise.  From  1842  to  1851, 
eight  (8)  years,  a  regular  decline. 

At  the  other  extremity  of  the  lake  accounts  dif- 
fer as  to  the  fact  of  the  lowest  water  being  in  1819  or 


252  FUGITIVE     ESSAYS. 

1820 ;  but  the  difference  between  those  years  was 
slight.  It  was  at  the  greatest  height  in  June,  1838, 
at  Buffalo,  and  in  August,  1838,  at  Black  Rock ;  so 
that  for  18  or  19  years  there  was  a  steady  rise.  From 
1838  to  1841  a  continual  decline  of  three  years,  the 
same  as  at  Detroit.  From  1841  to  1851,  ten  years, 
it  has  been  fluctuating  up  and  down,  about  as  much 
rise  as  fall;  that  is,  the  total  rise  2,75,  total  fall  2,56. 
At  Cleveland,  from  1796  to  1810-11,  the  water  was 
low  fourteen  years.  From  1811  to  1816,  five  years, 
rising  very  rapidly.  From  1816  to  1819,  three  years, 
falling  rapidly  to  the  lowest  known  point.  From 
1819  to  1838,  nineteen  years,  a  steady  rise.  Since 
1838  there  has  been  a  steady  decline  to  March,  1846, 
the  lowest  since  1819;  and  since  1846  considerable 
fluctuation  and  irregularity.  Among  all  these  periods 
there  is  none  of  seven,  and  just  one  of  fourteen  years. 
These  tables  demonstrate  the  effect  of  the  change 
of  seasons  within  the  year  upon  the  stage  of  water. 
They  show  an  annual  rise  and  fall  entirely  independ- 
ent of  the  general  height  of  water  fluctuating  a  cer- 
tain distance  within  each  year,  whether  the  general 
surface  is  high  or  low. 


The  average  or  mean  annual  difference  of  four  well  ascertained  years 

at  Cleveland,  is 1  ft    3      in. 

Of  (8)  years  at  Detroit 1ft.     21^  in. 

Of  (4)  four  at  Buffalo 0  ft.  10^  in. 

Mean  of  all  annual  differences 1  ft.    1^6  In. 

No  observer  of  Registers  has  discovered  a  daily  or  lunar  tide. 

The  greatest  range  of  general  surface  of  the  lake  at  Detroit  was  be- 
tween August.  183s,  and  June,  1819 5  ft.  3  in. 

At  Black  Rock,  between  August,  L838,  end  August,1819  orl820 ft  ft.  3  in. 

At  Buffalo,  between  Jane,  1838,  end  August,  1819 5  ft.  3  in. 

At  Cleveland,  between  .inn.',  1838,  end  the  full  of  1810 5  to  6  ft. 

The  greatest  extremr  and  tem/mrary  range  noticed  in  the  Register  oc- 
curr.il  between  the  same  years,  are  given  as  follows: 

At  Detroit 6  ft   8  in. 

At  Black  Kock 7  ft.  1  in. 

AtCleveland about  7  ft.  0  in. 


COAL  AND  IRON  TRADE  OF  THE  OHIO  VALLEY.       258 

At  this  time  Lake  Superior  is  unusually  high. 
During  the  summer  of  1851  it  was  about  (3)  three 
feet  above  the  general  level  of  1847,  when  it  was  un- 
usually low.  Lake  Huron  is  stated  to  have  been  (2J) 
two  and  one-half  feet  higher  at  the  Detour  light  than 
in  1847.  Lake  Michigan  is  reported  to  be  higher  the 
past  autumn  than  for  several  years.  The  upper  lakes 
being  full  must  discharge  a  large  surplus  into  Lake 
Erie  and  Ontario,  which  will  be  felt  in  the  coming 
spring.  If  we  have  a  cold  and  wet  season,  it  will 
operate  at  that  time  to  assist  the  flood  of  water  from 
the  north,  in  raising  the  surface  of  our  lake.  If  it 
is  warm  and  dry,  it  will  counteract  the  effect  of  a 
large  supply  through  the  Detroit  River.  Instead  of 
regarding  the  rise  and  fall  of  water  in  the  lakes  as  a 
mystery,  it  is  rather  to  be  wondered  that  there  is  so 
little  fluctuation.  Their  stability  is  dependent  entirely 
upon  the  regularity  of  the  seasons  within  the  lake 
country,  and  if  there  should  be  a  combination  of  wet 
and  cold  years,  wherein  the  fall  of  rain  should  be 
great,  and  the  evaporation  small,  there  might  be  a 
rise  or  fall  exceeding  anything  we  have  on  record. 


COAL  AND  IKON  TRADE  OF  THE  OHIO  VALLEY. 

[Merchant's  Magazine,  May,  1847.] 


The  coal  and  the  iron  fields  that  exist  between  the 
Alleghany  Mountains  and  the  Mississippi  River  are 
commensurate  in  extent,  because  the  strata  of  iron- 
22 


264  FUGITIVE     ESSAYS. 

stone  and  coal  alternate  with  each  other.  Iron  is,  it 
is  true,  a  mineral  not  confined  to  one  rock  or  forma- 
tion, but  ranges  from  the  primitive  rocks,  up  through 
the  sedimentary  strata,  to  the  recent  alluvion.  But 
the  world  over,  it  is  a  .geological  law,  that  the  coal- 
bearing  rocks  are  composed  in  sensible  quantities  of 
the  ores  of  iron ;  so  that  an  explorer,  having  discov- 
ered that  he  is  in  the  midst  of  the  carboniferous  sys- 
tem, expects  to  find  beds  of  iron  with  as  much  confi- 
dence as  he  expects  coal. 

This  metal  may  not  be  so  abundant  in  all  parts 
as  to  be  of  economical  value;  but  strata  of  greater 
or  less  thickness  may  be  relied  upon  as  forming  part 
of  the  regular  geological  structure  of  the  country. 
Thus  we  may  foresee  the  immense  product  of  iron 
that  the  western  coal  fields  will,  of  certainty,  yield 
to  posterity. 

During  the  past  two  years,  four  furnaces  have 
been  built  on  the  Mahoning  Canal  that  use  raw  bitu- 
minous coal,  in  lieu  of  charcoal,  in  reducing  ores. 
Three  of  them  are  in  the  county  of  Mahoning,  Ohio, 
at  Youngstown  and  Lowell,  and  another  at  Tallmadge, 
near  Akron,  in  Summit  county.  Two  of  them  have 
been  in  operation  long  enough  to  test  the  project,  and 
the  results  are,  that  pig  metal  can  be  produced  in  this 
way  at  less  cost  than  with  charcoal.  The  conse- 
quences of  this  experiment,  and  its  success,  are 
prodigious.  Ores  that  are  called  "harsh"  by  the 
founders,  containing  silicious  matter,  and  therefore 
refractory  and  expensive,  are  found  to  be  more  easily 
reduced  by  the  concentrated  heat  and  blast  of  the 
coal  furnace  than  by  the  charcoal  stack.  The  limit 
to  the  manufacture  of  iron  is  thus  not  restrained  by 
the  want  of  timber ;  nor  are  the  woodlands  of  the 
country  destroyed  to  supply  the  furnaces.  Mineral 
coal  being  literally  inexhaustible,  the  only  bound*  to 


COAL  AND  IRON  TRADE  OF  THE  OHIO  VALLEY.       255 

the  production  of  iron  are  the  supply  of  ore  and  the 
demand  for  the  article.  Coal  and  coal  lands  become 
thus  of  higher  importance  in  the  economy  of  a  coun- 
try, and  of  more  local  value. 

Geological  investigations  have  gone  so  far  as  to 
determine,  with  general  accuracy,  the  boundaries  of 
the  Alleghany  coal  field.  It  is  of  an  oblong  form  and 
somewhat  irregular,  the  longest  axis  extending  north- 
east and  south-west,  from  the  neighborhood  of  Mead- 
ville,  Pennsylvania,  to  that  of  Huntsville,  Alabama, 
nearly  600  miles  in  length.  It  is  widest  at  the  north- 
ern part,  tapering  to  a  point  at  the  southern  extremity. 
Its  breadth  is  greatest  at  Pittsburgh  and  Wheeling, 
where  the  Ohio  River  occupies  a  central  position,  and 
its  thickness  at  the  centre  is  estimated  at  2,000  to 
3,000  feet.  By  this  is  meant,  that  all  the  strata  of 
sandstone,  shale,  coal,  limestone,  and  ironstone,  that 
compose  the  coal  series  or  "  formation,"  from  the 
conglomerate,  the  base  of  the  formation,  to  the  top 
of  the  same,  are,  inclusive,  so  many  feet  thick. 

The  region  occupied  by  these  strata  is  called  a 
basin,  or  a  coal  basin,  because  the  strata  plunge  to- 
wards a  common  centre,  or  central  line ;  so  that  a 
boring,  or  well,  made  in  the  valley  of  the  Ohio  River, 
at  or  near  Wheeling,  would  pass  through  2,000  or 
8,000  feet  of  these  rocks  before  reaching  the  con- 
glomerate, which  is  seen  at  the  surface,  at  Akron  on 
the  west,  and  at  the  summit  of  the  Alleghanies  on  the 
east.  In  physical  level,  the  eastern  outcrop  of  the 
lowest  bed  of  coal  is  higher  than  the  surface  of  the 
upper  beds  of  coal ;  but  in  geological  order  of  super- 
position, it  is  lowest  of  all.  For  instance,  the  bed 
which  is  worked  near  the  station-house  of  the  Portage 
Railroad  is  the  one  at  the  bottom  of  the  series,  but  is 
2,000  feet  above  tide-water.  The  beds  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Wheeling  are  higher  up  in  the  series,  and 


256  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

2,000  or  3,000  feet  above  the  continuation  of  the 
age  summit  bed,  extending  westward  to  that 
place  ;  but  the  Ohio  River  is  here  only  about  640  feel 
above  the  ocean,  and  the  hills  adjacent  about  500 
feet  more.  The  bottom  of  the  coal  strata  is  therefore 
1,500  or  2,000  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  ocean. 
Such  is  the  result  of  a  gradual  plunge,  continued 
through  long  distances  ;  the  lower  bed  of  coal,  having 
descended  from  the  summit  of  the  Alleghany  Moun- 
tains, 2,000  feet  above  the  sea,  to  a  point  as  many 
feet  below  it,  and  then  rising  towards  the  west,  ap- 
pearfl  at  the  surface,  on  the  other  side  of  the  basin, 
at  Akron  and  Newcastle,  900  to  950  feet  above  the 
ocean  level.  The  distance  between  the  two  sides  of 
the  field  or  basin,  on  its  lesser  axis,  is  about  200 
miles. 

The  entire  number  of  coal  and  iron  strata  em- 
braced in  this  mass  is  not  known ;  but  if  we  could 
penetrate  it  from  top  to  bottom,  or  make  a  vertical 
section,  as  we  are  enabled  to  do  by  observing  the  face 
of  the  rocks  at  various  points,  we  should  probably 
find  at  least  fifty  strata  of  coal,  and  more  than  twice 
that  number  of  ironstone,  lying  in  regular  order  one 
above  another.  Of  these,  twenty  or  twenty-five  of 
the  coal  strata  might  be  workable ;  or  say,  three  feet 
thick  and  upwards  to  six  feet;  and  of  the  iron,  more 
than  one-half  would  pay  for  stripping  at  the  edges 
around  the  hills.  In  Lawrence  county,  Ohio,  on  the 
western  verge  of  the  field,  where  the  strata  dip  gently 
to  the  eastward,  in  the  vertical  space  of  about  800 
feet,  there  are  seen  four  workable  strata  of  coal,  and 
eight  of  iron,  with  many  more  regularly  stratified 
beds  of  less  thickness.  Here,  a  bed  of  coal  less  than 
three  feet  is  not  considered  valuable;  and  ore  is 
thought  worth  stripping  when  an  inch  may  be  had  by 
removing  a  foot   of  earth.     All   parti  of  this  great 


COAL  AND  IRON  TRADE  OF  THE  OHIO  VALLEY.       257 

field  may  not  be  as  rich,  but  some  are  known  to  be 
more  so  ;  and  iron  is  found,  in  several  instances,  out- 
side of  the  coal  region.  Here  is  an  area,  therefore, 
larger  than  all  England  and  Scotland,  over  which  fur- 
naces may  be  supported,  if  a  demand  for  iron  could 
by  possibility  arise  equal  to  such  a  capacity  for  pro- 
duction. 

On  the  Lower  Ohio,  in  Kentucky,  Indiana,  and 
Illinois,  is  another  basin,  or  field,  of  coal  and  iron,  of 
large  dimensions,  but  detached  from  the  one  above 
noticed.  It  is  also  oval  in  form,  and  more  regular 
than  the  Alleghany  field ;  its  greatest  length  being  in 
a  north-westerly  and  south-easterly  direction,  from 
the  north-west  angle  of  Illinois,  passing  the  mouth  of 
the  Cumberland  to  the  south  line  of  Kentucky,  say 
300  miles.  It  embraces  a  large  portion  of  Illinois, 
several  of  the  south-western  counties  of  Indiana,  and 
four  or  five  of  the  Green  River,  Tennessee,  and  Cum- 
berland River  counties,  in  Kentucky.  But  because  a 
large  part  of  the  tract  is  level,  the  strata  do  not  crop 
out  advantageously  for  mining ;  and  their  edges  are 
seen  principally  on  the  banks  of  streams  and  collat- 
eral valleys  that  put  out  from  the  main  ones.  The 
mineral  power  of  this  region  is  but  little  understood. 
At  Hawesville,  and  a  few  other  points,  coal  is  fur- 
nished for  steamboats  and  taken  to  New  Orleans. 

Beyond  the  Mississippi,  in  Missouri  and  Iowa,  and 
even  to  the  sources  of  the  Arkansas,  coal  is  known  to 
exist ;  but  as  yet  it  is  not  explored  so  as  to  define  its 
limits  or  value,  or  to  determine  whether  it  is  a  part 
of  the  Illinois  field,  or  of  one  or  more  separate  basins. 
In  Michigan,  also,  there  is  a  basin,  including  about 
one-half  the  lower  peninsula;  but  the  strata  are  thin, 
and  the  position  retired  from  navigation.  And  in  ad- 
dition to  the  iron  ore,  necessarily  attendant  upon  such 
numerous  and  extensive  beds  of  coal,  there  are,  ex- 
22* 


258  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

tending  from  Lake  Superior,  with  occasional  intervals;, 
through  Wisconsin,  Missouri,  Arkansas,  and  Texas, 
masses  of  iron,  in  the  primitive  and  volcanic  beds, 
that  exist  along  a  line  from  Michigan  to  Mexico. 

By  the  census  of  1840,  there  were,  in  the  United 
States,  804  furnaces,  producing  annually  285,903 
tons  of  pig  metal  and  castings:  There  were  also  795 
forges  or  refineries,  turning  out  197,233  tons  of  mal- 
leable iron. 

The  bituminous  coal  raised  was  27.603,191  bush- 
els; which,  at  70  lbs.  to  the  bushel,  is  966,111  tons; 
of  anthracite  coal,  863,489  tons. 

On  account  of  the  increased  demand,  and  also  in 
consequence  of  the  introduction  of  the  hot  blast,  by 
which  the  yield  of  a  furnace  is  increased  from  one- 
third  to  one-half,  without  knowing  the  number  of  the 
furnaces  and  iron-mills  erected  since  1839,  I  think  it 
safe  to  allow  25  per  cent.,  or  one-quarter,  for  the  en- 
larged production  of  1846  over  1839  :  — 

TONS. 

That  is,  for  pig  metal  in  the  United  States,  358,024 
For  malleable  iron  and  iron  rails,  .         246,581 

The  increase  in  the  quantity  of  bituminous  coal, 
raised  and  consumed,  is  still  greater — probably  50 
per  cent.,  or  one-half. 

In  February,  1846,  the  descending  coal  trade  of 
the  Ohio  was  estimated  at  12,000,000  of  bushels,  or 
480,000  tons. 

In  1840,  there  were  received  at  Cleveland,  by  the 
Ohio  Canal,  6,032  tons ;  in  1846,  31,283  tons. 

This  is  not  all  the  coal  consumed  upon  the  lakes ; 
for  the  Erie  extension,  now  in  operation,  delivers  at 
Erie,  in  Pennsylvania,  a  large  amount,  probably 
12,000  tons.  At  the  time  of  the  census  of  1840,  the 
mines  on  the  Lower  Ohio  had  scarcely  been  opened  ; 


COAL  AND  IRON  TRADE  OF  THE  OHIO  VALLEY.       259 

and  the  steamboats  on  the  Ohio  River,  like  those  on  the 
lakes,  had  not  become  habituated  to  the  use  of  coal. 

With  all  these  indications  of  increased  consump- 
tion at  the  west,  where  the  principal  beds  of  bitumi- 
nous coal  exist — for  the  United  States^  I  think  it  safe 
to  put  the  augmented  business  in  that  time  at  50  per 
cent.  The  new  use  in  stack  furnaces,  and  the  in- 
creased use  in  rolling-mills  and  forges,  add  much  to 
the  already  monstrous  application  of  this  fuel.  We 
will  therefore  state  the  present  amount  of  bitumin- 
ous coal  raised,  which  is  principally  at  the  west,  at 
1,449,161  tons. 

This  does  not  probably  show  more  than  one-third  of 
the  consumption  of  the  United  States,  including  the 
anthracite  and  imported  coals.  At  that  rate,  the  total 
consumed  in  the  United  States  would  be  4,347,748 
tons,  or  about  the  same  as  that  of  France,  in  1841. 

It  may  appear  singular,  but  it  is  nevertheless  true, 
that  in  the  experiments  upon  the  heating  power  of 
coal,  made  at  Washington,  in  1843-44,  at  the  expense 
of  the  government,  under  Professor  Johnston,  only 
three  specimens  were  taken  from  the  west  of  the  Alle- 
ghany Mountains,  out  of  fifty-eight  specimens  ope- 
rated upon.  Of  the  three,  one  was  from  Pittsburgh  ; 
one  from  Cannelton,  Indiana ;  and  one  from  the  New 
Orleans  coal-yards, — its  origin  not  known.  We  arc 
therefore  still  without  the  benefit  of  most  of  the  splen- 
did results  that  flow  from  these  experiments. 

The  practical  value  of  the  coal,  everything  else 
being  equal,  is  its  capacity  to  make  steam ;  and  the 
rule  of  the  experimenter  was  to  determine  the  quan- 
tity necessary  to  convert  one  cubic  foot  of  water  into 
steam : — 

LBS 

The  Pennsylvania  and  Maryland  free  burning 

coals  required  for  that  purpose  .         .      7.33 


260  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

LBS. 

The  anthracite 7.71 

Richmond 8.20 

English  and  Western        ....  8.97 

In  regard  to  western  coals,  the  number  of  speci- 
mens was  too  small  to  give  much  value  to  the  conclu- 
sion, in  regard  to  their  heating  power.  It  is  satis- 
factorily settled,  however,  that  the  heating  power  is 
not  in  direct  proportion  to  the  carbon  of  the  coal ; 
for  although  the  anthracite  is  nearly  pure  carbon,  it 
stands  below  the  free  burning  Maryland  and  Pennsyl- 
vania coals  that  contain  bitumen. 

According  to  Professor  Silliman,  the  George's 
Creek  coal,  Maryland,  of  which  four  specimens  were 
analyzed,  contained  18J  per  cent,  bitumen ;  and  it  is 
this  and  the  kindred  kinds  which,  according  to  Pro- 
fessor Johnston,  stand  at  the  head  of  the  list.  It  is 
well  known  that,  in  Pennsylvania,  there  is  a  regular 
gradation  from  anthracite  to  bituminous  coal,  as  we 
proceed  from  Mauch  Chunk  towards  Pittsburgh.  The 
Ohio  coals  contain,  in  general,  a  larger  amount  of 
bitumen  than  those  of  the  eastern  edge  of  the  field 
on  the  summit  of  the  Alleghanies ;  that  is  to  say, 
from  30  to  40  per  cent. 

Reducing  the  bitumen  to  its  elements,  the  Ohio 
coals,  as  far  as  analyzed,  give  about  81  per  cent, 
carbon,  while  the  English  coals  have  about  73  per 
cent.  Professor  Johnston  ranges  the  English  and 
western,  according  to  their  heating  effect,  about  the 
same. 

Let  us  now  refer  to  the  return  of  coal  and  iron 
for  the  whole  United  States,  by  the  census,  and  com- 
pare the  proportion  of  both  due  to  the  Ohio  Valley, 
by  which  I  mean  the  region  drained  by  its  waters. 


COAL  AND  IRON  TRADE  OF  THE  OHIO  VALLEY.      261 

No.  of  furnaces,    No.  of  forges,        Bush,  of 
and  tons  of  and  tons  of  bitumin- 

cast  iron.  iron.  ous  coal. 

Western  District  of  Pennsylvania,  134  53,101  67  63,431  13,6:0,<54 

*               "         Virginia 30  10,892  38  3,721  S,u73,;;i:4 

Tennessee 34  16,128  99  9.673  13,942 

Kentucky 17  29,206  13  3,637  1,J68,167 

Ohio 72  35,236  19  7,466  3j697;769 

Indiana 7             810  1  20  242.000 

Illinois 4             158  0            461,807 

For  the  Ohio  Valley 298      145,531      337        87.948        25,167,703 

For  the  United  States 804      286,903      795      197,233        27,603,191 

By  these  footings,  about  one-half  the  iron  made 
in  this  nation  is  turned  out  upon  the  waters  of  the 
Ohio,  and  almost  the  whole  of  the  bituminous  coal. 

I  have  no  means  of  stating  the  quantity  of  anthra- 
cite coal  now  raised,  or  of  giving  the  probable  increase 
since  1839-40.  In  Ohio,  since  the  above  enumera- 
tion was  taken,  there  have  been  at  least  eight  furnaces 
erected,  and  in  Kentucky  four ;  most  of  them  hot 
blast  furnaces.  There  has  also  been  an  increase  in 
western  Pennsylvania.  Throughout  the  west,  gene- 
rally, it  may  be  asserted,  that  the  number  of  works 
and  the  product  of  individual  works  have  increased  in 
greater  proportion  than  east  of  the  mountains.  If 
this  is  true,  the  relative  product  of  the  Ohio  Valley 
and  of  the  nation,  at  this  time,  would  be  different 
from  that  shown  in  the  preceding  table,  and  the  dif- 
ference would  be  in  favor  of  the  west. 

The  duty  on  coal,  under  the  act  of  1842,  was 
$1  75  per  ton.  From  September  1st,  1845,  to  March 
1st,  1846  (six  months),  New  Orleans  received  by  the 
river  300,000  bushels,  which  it  was  supposed  might 
be  met  by  imported  coal,  under  a  duty  of  $  1  per  ton. 
The  act  of  1846  fixes  upon  coal  a  duty  of  30  per 
cent,  ad  valorem. 

It  is  an  article  that  varies  greatly  in  price,  at  dif- 
ferent places,  and  almost  as  much  at  the  same  place 
at  different  times. 


FUGITIVE  ESSAYS. 

CENTS. 

At  New  Orleans,  by  retail,  per  bushel,  from  12  to  18 

Cincinnati 9  to  15 

Wheeling 3  to    5 

Pittsburgh 4  to    5J 

Cleveland 8  to  12 

Philadelphia  (Feb.,  1846),  bituminous,  20  to  22 
New  York,  Nova  Scotia  coal        .         .  18  to  2H 
New  York,  English  coal  .         .        23  to  25 

These  prices  are,  of  course,  mere  approximations. 

By  the  experiments  of  Professor  Johnston,  the 
effect  of  anthracite,  in  generating  steam,  is  not  greatly 
superior  to  that  of  bituminous  coal ;  and  consequently, 
for  household  consumption,  the  bituminous,  if  fur- 
nished at  about  the  same  price,  will  work  its  way  into 
favor.  The  cheerful  brightness  of  its  flame  is,  to 
many  persons,  more  than  a  compensation  for  the  dif- 
ference in  heat. 

At  Albany,  there  is  already  a  small  demand  for 
coal  from  Lake  Erie,  at  anthracite  prices — say  $  6  to 
$  7  per  ton.  It  is  more  than  probable  that,  after  the 
Erie  Canal  is  enlarged,  this  article,  like  the  wheat, 
flour,  and  pork  of  the  lakes,  will  become  an  important 
item  in  western  trade. 

At  Cleveland  and  Erie  it  can  be  delivered  in  bulk 
on  large  contracts,  at  $  2  25  and  $  2  50  per  ton  of 
2,000  pounds. 

Half  a  ton,  or  fourteen  and  a  quarter  bushels,  of 
bituminous  coal,  is  more  than  equal  to  a  cord  of  four- 
foot  wood ;  in  fact,  some  regard  ten  bushels,  and 
others  twelve  bushels,  as  equal  to  a  cord. 

There  is  therefore  seldom,  if  ever,  a  time,  even  in 
the  greatest  scarcity  of  coal  in  market,  when  coal  is 
not  cheaper  than  wood  as  a  fuel ;  ordinarily,  it  is 
about  one-luiJf  less.     This  fact,  taken  in  connection 


COAL  AND  IRON  TRADE  OF  THE  OHIO  VALLEY.       263 

with  its  greater  safety,  less  trouble,  uniformity  of 
temperature,  and  the  increasing  scarcity  of  tim- 
ber, explains  why  mineral  fuel  conquers  every  other, 
everywhere,  and  works  its  way  into  all  departments 
of  life. 

In  the  coal  regions,  for  most  purposes  of  power 
applied  to  machinery,  it  is  crowding  hard  upon  the 
old  method  of  water-wheels,  substituting  the  steam- 
engine  in  their  place.  For  such  uses,  the  bituminous 
coal  seems  to  please  best,  on  account  of  the  readiness 
with  which  it  may  be  set  on  fire,  and  thus  a  quick 
steam  is  obtained.  It  will  undoubtedly  always  bear  a 
higher  price  in  the  principal  eastern  cities  than  an- 
thracite. 

The  interior  of  the  great  Alleghany  coal  field 
may  be  thought  too  remote  from  the  principal  com- 
municatians  to  be  of  anything  more  than  a  local 
value.  But  in  Virginia  and  Kentucky,  the  Cumber- 
land, Kentucky,  Licking,  and  Kenawha  Rivers,  ex- 
tend far  into  the  coal  measures,  and  in  high  water 
the  arks  or  flat  boats  are  enabled  to  descend  with  a 
full  load.  The  Monongahela  and  the  Youghogheny 
likewise  cut  through  coal  strata  their  entire  length, 
and  the  same  may  be  said  of  the  Muskingum. 

From  the  sources  of  the  branches  of  the  Upper 
Ohio,  to  the  neighborhood  of  Portsmouth,  all  the 
streams  flow  over  beds  of  coal,  or  have  worn  their  way 
through  them  in  the  course  of  ages. 

The  "Erie  extension"  is  cut  in  the  coal  strata, 
and  also  the  Mahoning,  and  the  Sandy  and  Beaver 
Canals.  The  Ohio  Canal,  from  Akron  to  Dresden,  is 
in  the  same  series ;  and  thence  to  Portsmouth  skirts 
its  western  edges.  The  Hocking  Canal  is  also  in  the 
coal  region. 

At  present,  the  principal  mines  on  the  river  are 
at  Hawesville,  Pomeroy,  Wheeling,  Pittsburgh,  and 


264  FUGITIVE  ESSAYS. 

thence  to  Brownsville.  It  is  from  these  points  that 
the  flat  boats  arc  filled  ;  but  at  a  hundred  other  places 
can  coal  be  taken,  in  any  quantity,  with  equal  facility, 
as  soon  as  it  shall  be  needed. 


COLONEL  BOQUET'S  EXPEDITION. 

Extracts  from  a  discourse  delivered  be/ore  the  Young  Men's  Literary 
Association  of  Cleveland,  December  17,  1840,  on  the  subject  of  Col- 
onel BoqueCs  Expedition  into  the  Muskingum  country,  in  October,  1704. 

[Cleveland  Herald,  December,  1846.] 


To  understand  the  situation  of  the  Indian  tribes, 
ogainst  whom  the  expedition  of  1764  was  sent,  we 
must  remember  that  it  was  before  the  Revolution,  and 
that  great  changes  had  then  recently  taken  place  on 
this  continent.  It  was  only  a  little  more  than  a  year 
since  the  English  had  been  put  in  possession  of  Cana- 
d.i  and  the  left  bank  of  the  Mississippi.  The  old 
French  war,  as  it  is  called,  had  but  just  closed,  in 
which  the  English  were  victorious,  and  by  the  treaty 
of  Paris,  in  February,  1703,  England  received  all  the 
country  of  the  lakes  and  the  St.  Lawrence. 

There  had  been  a  long  dispute  between  these  na- 
tions about  the  regions  south  of  the  lakes  and  west 
of  the  Alleghany  Mountains,  which  resulted  in  the 
French  giving  up  everything  in  North  America  as  low 
as  the  river  Iberville,  which  was  a  mouth  or  bayou  of 
the  Mississippi  above  New  Orleans. 

When  this  war  broke  out  in  1752,  the  French  had 


COLONEL  BOQUET's  EXPEDITION.         265 

military  possession  of  a  line  of  posts  from  the  Bay  of 
Funday  across  the  Connecticut  River  to  Crown  Point, 
Qsw ego,  Niagara,  Presque  Isle,  now  Erie,  and  Fort 
Pitt,  then  called  Fort  Duquesne.  They  had  succeeded 
in  gaining  the  confidence  of  the  Indians,  who  fought 
in  great  numbers  against  the  English  and  with  the 
French. 

By  the  treaty  the  garrisons  of  all  the  places  I 
ha\re  just  named,  and  also  those  of  Detroit,  Mackinac, 
St.  Joseph's,  Vineennes,  and  about  thirty  more,  march- 
ed out,  and  the  English  troops  entered. 

The  Indians  were  very  much  displeased  when  they 
saw  the  English  taking  possession  of  their  country,  for 
they  preferred  the  Frenchmen,  Avho  had  been  their 
friends  and  traders  more  than  one  hundred  years,  and 
had  married  Indian  women. 

A  noted  chief  of  the  OttaAva  tribe,  known  by  the 
name  of  Pontiac,  formed  the  resolution  to  destroy  all 
the  English  frontier  posts  at  one  assault,  in  Avhich  he 
Avas  encouraged  by  the  French  traders.  This  Indian 
warrior,  whose  name  ranks  with  those  of  Philip,  lied 
Jacket,  Little  Turtle,  and  Tecumsch,  seemed  to  pene- 
trate the  future,  and  foresaw  the  dangers  that  threaten- 
ed his  people  by  the  presence  of  the  whites.  He  Avas 
possessed  of  an  active  mind,  of  physical  energies  not 
common  even  among  Indians,  and  a  stirring  eloquence 
which  Avon  him  authority  and  influence.  He  resided 
at  the  Avest  end  of  Lake  Erie,  and  from  this  central 
position  he  visited  the  Avestern  tribes. 

He  represented  to  them  that  they  Avere  iioav  strong 
and  the  English  Avere  weak,  but  that  soldiers  were  con- 
tinually arriving,  so  that  in  a  feAV  moons  the  Indians 
would  be  weak  and  the  Avhite  men  strong;  that  the 
designs  of  the  Avhites  Avere  iioav  manifest ;  one  nation 
had  Avithout  their  consent  transferred  them  to  another, 
and  no  one  kneAV  Iioav  long  it  might  be  before  they 


266  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

would  be  again  sold  like  slaves  to  some  other  power ; 
that  they  were  either  to  be  annihilated  or  enslaved,  and 
that  it  was  better  to  die  fighting  than  to  suffer  either. 

He  succeeded  in  forming  an  alliance  with  the 
Ottawas,  having  900  warriors ;  the  Pottowotemies, 
with  350;  Miamies  of  the  Lake,  350;  Chippewas, 
5,000  ;  Wyandots,  300  ;  Delawares,  600  ;  Shawanese, 
500 ;  Kickapoos,  300 ;  Ouatanons  of  the  Wabash, 
400,  and  the  Pinankeshaws,  250  ;  in  all,  able  to  mus- 
ter 8,950  warriors. 

This  may  be  called  the  u  First  Great  North-west- 
ern Confederacy "  against  the  whites.  The  second 
took  place  under  Brandt,  or  Thayandanegea,  during 
the  Revolution,  and  was  continued  by  Little  Turtle  ; 
the  third  under  Tecumseh,  in  the  last  war. 

Pontiac's  projects  were  brought  to  a  focus  in  the 
fall  of  1763,  and  the  result  was  nearly  equal  to  the 
design.  The  Indians  collected  at  all  the  north-west- 
ern forts,  under  the  pretence  of  trade  and  friendly  in- 
tercourse, and  having  killed  all  the  English  traders 
who  were  scattered  through  their  villages,  they  made 
a  simultaneous  attack  upon  the  forts. 

The  forts  at  La  Bay  (probably  Green  Bay)  and 
at  St.  Joseph's,  on  Lake  Michigan,  were  taken,  and 
also  Fort  Mackinaw.  Fort  Miami  on  the  Maumee 
River,  and  that  of  the  Ouatanons  on  the  Wabash, 
Fort  Junendot  on  Sandusky  Bay,  Fort  Presque  Isle 
(now  Erie),  and  two  subordinate  works  connecting 
Eric  and  Pittsburgh  were  surprised,  and  the  most  hor- 
rible fate  inflicted  upon  all  Englishmen  found  within 
them.  Detroit,  Fort  Pitt,  and  Niagara  were  able  to 
resist  the  assault ;  but  Pontiac  having  much  of  his 
force  released  by  success  at  other  posts,  concentrated 
it  upon  Fort  Pitt  and  Detroit,  as  the  most  obnoxious 
and  important  posts.  Both  these  places  were  invest- 
ed by  an  Indian  blockade  and  siege. 


COLONEL   BOQUET'S  EXPEDITION.  267 

The  inhabitants  of  Pennsylvania  and  Virginia 
were  now  subject  to  great  alarm,  and  frequently  rob- 
beries and  murders  were  committed  upon  them  by  the 
Indians,  and  prisoners  were  captured. 

General  Gage  was  at  this  time  the  Commander-in- 
Chief  of  the  British  forces  in  America,  and  his  head- 
quarters were  at  Boston.  He  ordered  an  expedition 
of  3,000  men  for  the  relief  of  Detroit,  to  move  early 
in  the  year  1764.  It  was  directed  to  assemble  at 
Fort  Niagara,  and  proceeded  up  Lake  Erie  in  boats, 
commanded  by  General  Bradstreet. 

The  other  was  the  expedition  I  design  principally 
to  notice  at  this  time.  It  was  at  first  composed  of 
the  42d  and  77th  regiments,  who  had  been  at  the 
siege  of  Havana,  in  Cuba,  under  the  command  of 
Colonel  Henry  Boquet.  This  force  left  Philadelphia 
for  the  relief  of  Fort  Pitt,  in  July  1763,  and  after  de- 
feating the  Indians  at  Bushy  Run,  in  August,  drove 
them  across  the  Ohio.  It  wintered  at  Fort  Pitt,  where 
some  of  the  houses  built  by  Colonel  Boquet  may  still 
be  seen,  his  name  cut  in  stone  upon  the  wall. 

General  Gage  directed  Colonel  Boquet  to  organ- 
ize a  corps  of  1,500  men,  and  to  enter  the  country  of 
the  Delawares  and  the  Shawanese,  at  the  same  time  that 
General  Bradstreet  was  engaged  in  chastising  the 
Wyandots  and  Ottawas  of  Lake  Erie,  who  were  still 
investing  Detroit.  As  a  part  of  Colonel  Boquet's 
force  was  composed  of  militia  from  Pennsylvania  and 
Virginia,  it  was  slow  to  assemble.  On  the  5th  of  Au- 
gust, the  Pennsylvania  quota  rendezvoused  at  Carlisle, 
where  300  of  them  deserted.  The  Virginia  quota  ar- 
rived at  Fort  Pitt  on  the  17th  of  September,  and  uni- 
ting with  the  provincial  militia*,  a  part  of  the  42d  and 
6 J th  regiments,  the  army  moved  from  Fort  Pitt  on 
the  3d  of  October. 

General  Bradstreet,  having  dispersed  the  Indian 


2G8  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS, 

forces  besieging  Detroit,  passed  into  the  "Wyandot 
country  by  "way  of  Sandusky  Bay.  He  ascended  the 
bay  and  river  as  far  as  it  was  navigable  for  boats, 
and  there  made  a  camp.  A  treaty  of  peace  and  friend- 
ship was  signed  by  the  chiefs  and  head  men,  who  de- 
livered but  very  few  of  their  prisoners, 

When  Colonel  Boquct  was  at  Fort  Loudon,  in 
Pennsylvania,  between  Carlisle  and  Fort  Pitt,  urging 
forward  the  militia  levies,  he  received  a  despatch  from 
!  ral  Bradstreet,  notifying  him  of  the  peace  effect- 
ed at  Sandusky. 

But  the  Ohio  Indians,  particularly  the  Shawanese 
of  the  Scioto  liiver,  and  the  Dclawarcs  of  the  Musk- 
ingum, still  continued  their  robberies  and  murders 
along  the  frontier  of  Pennsylvania  ;  and  so  Colonel 
Boquct  determined  to  proceed  with  his  division,  not- 
withstanding the  peace  of  General  Bradstreet,  which 
did  not  include  the  Shawanese  and  Delawares. 

In  the  march  from  Philadelphia  to  Fort  Pitt, 
Colonel  Boquct  had  shown  himself  to  be  a  man  of  de- 
cision, courage,  and  military  genius.  In  the  engage- 
ment at  Bushy  Run,  he  displayed  that  caution  in  pre- 
paring for  emergencies,  that  high  personal  influence 
over  his  troops,  and  a  facility  of  changing  his  plans 
as  circumstances  changed  during  the  battle,  which 
mark  the  good  commander  and  the  cool-headed  officer. 
He  had  been  with  Forbes  and  Washington  when  Fort 
Pitt  was  taken  from  the  French. 

The  Indians  who  were  assembled  at  Fort  Pitt  left 

the  siege  of  that  place,  and   advanced   to  meet  the 

force  of  Boquct,  intending  to  execute  a  surprise  and 

oy  the  whole  command.     These  savages  remem- 

had  entrapp<  •!  <  rcncral   Brad- 

v  years  before   by  the  Bamc  movement,  and 

had  no  doubt  of  Buccess  against  Boquet.     But  he  mi 

always  in  a  hollow  square,  with  his  provision  train 


COLONEL   BOQUET'S   EXPEDITION.  269 

and  his  cattle  in  the  centre,  impressing  his  men  with 
the  idea  that  a  fire  might  open  upon  them  at  any  mo- 
ment. When  the  important  hour  arrived,  and  they 
were  saluted  with  the  discharges  of  a  thousand  rifles, 
accompanied  by  the  terrific  yells  of  so  many  savage 
warriors  arrayed  in  the  livery  of  demons,  the  English 
and  Provincial  troops  behaved  like  veterans,  whom 
nothing  could  shake.  They  achieved  a  complete  vic- 
tory, and  drove  the  allied  Indian  force  beyond  the 
Ohio. 

The  principal  authority  relating  to  this  expedition, 
and  also  the  one  to  the  Muskingum  River,  is  a  work 
by  Captain  Thomas  Hutchins,  of  the  60th  regiment 
of  foot.  In  1T65  he  published  a  small  quarto,  in 
London,  with  a  map  of  the  country  now  forming  the 
State  of  Ohio.  Captain  Hutchins  accompanied  both 
expeditions  as  a  military  engineer,  and  has  left  a 
handsomely  written  and  extremely  important  book, 
and  one  which  is  now  very  rare.*  The  only  copy  I 
have  seen  was  at  the  Louisville  Mercantile  Library. 
Captain  Hutchins  wrote  "  A  description  of  the  Ohio, 
Scioto,  Kenhawa,  Wabash,  and  Illinois  "  Rivers,  which 
was  published  in  London,  November,  1778  ;  and  also 
an  "  Account  of  Florida,  Louisiana,  the  Mississippi, 
&c,"  published  at  Philadelphia,  1784.  These  are  at- 
tached to  Captain  Gilbert  Imlay's  America,  London, 
1797. 

Hutchins,  in  the  first  of  the  above  works,  says, 
"  The  Cayahoga  is  muddy  and  not  very  swift,  but  ob- 
structed with  falls  and  rifts.  Here  are  fine  uplands, 
extensive  meadows,  oak  and  mulberry  fit  for  ship 
building ;  walnut,  chestnut,  and  poplar  for  domestic 
uses.     Cuyahoga  furnishes  the  best  portage  between 

*  Colonel  Peter  Force,  of  Washington,  has  discovered  that  this 
work  was  composed  by  the  Rev.  William  Smith,  of  Philadelphia, 
from  the  notes  of  Boquet,  Hutchins,  and  others. 

23* 


270  fugitive  umatim 

the  Ohio  and  Lake  Erie,  and  at  its  mouth  it  is  deep 
and  wide  enough  to  admit  large  sloops  from  the  lake. 
It  will  hereafter  be  a  place  of  great  importance/' 

To  understand  the  full  merit  of  the  men  and  offi- 
cers employed  upon  military  duties  in  this  country, 
at  that  time,  we  should  remember  that  no  roads,  set- 
tlements, or  other  communications  existed  along  the 
route.  Occasionally  there  were  found  Indian  paths 
or  trails  leading  from  the  Ohio  River  to  the  lakes  ;  but 
for  an  army  to  pass  with  its  baggage  wagons,  and  its 
artillery,  ample  highways  were  to  be  cut  and  bridges 
constructed.  These  troops  were  directed  to  make  an 
incursion,  not  through  a  country  of  farms  and  villages, 
but  to  penetrate  a  vast  forest,  tenanted  all  over  with 
a  fierce  and  excited  savage  enemy,  one  who  knew  no 
rule  of  warfare  but  that  of  murder ;  or  if  prisoners 
were  taken,  they  were  reserved  for  a  slow  death,  to 
which  all  imaginable  tortures  were  added. 

When  Boquet's  command  set  forth  upon  their 
march,  they  stood  on  the  same  ground  where  the  un- 
fortunate victims  of  Braddock's  defeat  were  burnt 
alive,  with  every  circumstance  of  suffering  that  their 
heathen  captors  could  invent.  They  knew  full  well 
the  fate  that  awaited  them.  They  advanced  cautious- 
ly, surveying  a  road,  and  measuring  each  day's  travel 
with  a  chain.  The  detachment  had  proceeded  but  a 
few  miles  along  the  north  bank  of  the  Ohio,  when  they 
found  themselves  closely  watched  by  the  spies  of  the 
Delaware  tribe.  The  old  stratagem  of  Indian  war- 
fare, of  forming  an  ambuscade,  and  of  distracting  the 
command  by  drawing  off  portions  in  pursuit,  although 
attempted,  did  not  succeed.  The  English  troops  were 
always  in  close  order  and  ready  for  battle.  They 
passed  through  Logstown,  a  village  of  the  jShaw 
and  Datawares,  where  the  French  had  a  trading  post, 
but  the  place  was  now  abandoned.     At  the  mouth  of 


COLONEL   BOQUET'S   EXPEDITION.  271 

Big  Beaver,  now  called  Mahoning  River,  the  troops 
crossed  by  a  ford.  Here  there  was  a  trading  post  of 
the  French,  and  an  Indian  town  situated  near  where 
the  town  of  Beaver  now  stands.  But  the  place  was 
deserted,  and  the  remains  of  horses  which  the  Dela- 
wares  had  killed  were  there. 

On  the  6th  of  October  the  troops  reached  Beaver 
Creek,  which  we  call  little  Beaver,  and  the  next  day 
penetrated  the  wilderness  seven  miles  and  one  hundred 
and  thirty-seven  rods.  Their  route  passed  up  the 
east  branch  of  the  Little  Beaver  and  across  the  high- 
lands to  the  waters  of  Yellow  Creek  through  an  open 
bushy  country.  Here  the  Indian  trail  forked,  one 
branch  bearing  southward  to  the  lower  towns,  the 
other  continuing  westward  towards  the  Tuscaroras  and 
Sandusky  villages. 

On  Wednesday,  the  10th,  the  army  after  a  march 
of  seven  miles  and  sixty  rods,  cross  the  Yellow 
Creek,  and  the  next  day  reach  the  waters  of  San- 
dy Creek,  which  was  called  Big  Sandy,  a  branch  of 
the  Muskingum.  Passing  down  the  north  bank  of  the 
Sandy,  they  cross  the  Nimishillim,  a  creek  on  which 
the  village  of  Canton,  in  Stark  county,  is  now  built, 
but  called  by  Hutchins  the  NemensJiehelas.  On  Sat- 
urday they  reach  the  Muskingum,  at  a  village  of  the 
Tuscaroras,  having  a  strength  of  150  warriors,  but 
abandoned,  and  the  huts  in  ruins.  They  cross  at  a 
ford,  and  encamp  on  a  beautiful  plain  where  the  vil- 
lage of  Bolivar  now  stands.  On  Sunday  they  remain 
in  camp. 

When  Colonel  Boquet  set  out  from  Fort  Pitt,  he 
sent  two  messengers  through  the  country  with  a  des- 
patch for  General  Bradstreet  at  Lake  Junendot.  Du- 
ring the  day,  while  the  army  were  taking  rest  after 
the  fatigues  of  the  march,  these  messengers  came  into 
camp.     They  stated  that  the  Delawares,  at  a  town 


272  FUGITIVE   ES8AYS. 

about  sixteen  miles  distant,  had  made  them  prisoners, 
and  had  taken  them  to  their  town.  But  when  the  In- 
dians saw  how  large  an  army  was  advancing,  and  with 
what  regularity  and  caution  it  moved  forward  into 
their  country,  they  determined  to  send  the  messengers 
back,  and  directed  them  to  ask  for  peace. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  no  movement  was 
made  on  the  part  of  Colonel  Boquet  with  which  the 
Indians  were  not  fully  acquainted.  They  knew  the 
exact  strength  of  his  party,  and  kept  an  eye  upon  him 
from  the  adjacent  hills  and  thickets,  every  day  and 
every  hour  of  the  march.  They  were  also  well  ac- 
quainted with  the  man  sent  to  chastise  them,  and  knew 
him  to  be  determined  on  no  half-way  measures.  He 
had  so  far  escaped  from  their  hands,  and  they  saw 
him  seat  himself  on  the  banks  of  the  Muskingum  and 
commence  a  fort.  By  Tuesday,  the  16th  of  October, 
the  commander  had  erected  a  stockade  two  miles  and 
forty  rods  below  the  ford,  at  a  ravine,  and  had  com- 
pleted his  arrangements  against  a  surprise.  On  this 
day  six  chiefs  appeared  in  camp,  and  stated  that  the 
head  men  of  their  tribe  were  assembled  about  eight 
miles  distant,  and  wished  to  come  in  and  make  a  treaty. 
The  Colonel  and  a  large  portion  of  the  troops  proceed- 
ed to  a  bower,  and  the  chiefs  came  in,  sat  down  upon 
the  ground  and  began  to  smoke.  There  were  fifteen 
Seneca  warriors,  with  their  chief,  Kigashuta.  Of  the 
Delawares  there  were  twenty  warriors  and  two  chiefs, 
Cmtaloga,  of  the  Loups,  or  the  Wolf  tribe,  and  Beav- 
er, of  the  Turkey  tribe.  On  the  part  of  the  Shawa- 
nese  were  six  warriors,  and  Keissinautcha,  their  chief. 
Kigashuta,  Little-Heart,  Custaloga,  and  Beaver  were 
the  orators.  They  excused  themselves  for  their  late 
outrages  in  the  usual  manner,  throwing  all  the  blame 
upon  their  young  men  and  upon  other  tribes.  Eight- 
een prisoners  were  delivered  to  Colonel  Boquet,  and 


COLONEL  BOQUET'S   EXPEDITION.  273 

suing  for  peace  in  the  most  abject  terms,  they  prom- 
ised to  deliver  all  the  remaining  prisoners,  eighty- 
three  in  number.  An  answer  to  their  speeches  was 
set  for  the  next  day ;  but  as  it  was  then  rainy  the 
meeting  was  not  held  until  the  second  day  after,  when 
the  Colonel  made  a  bold  and  decided  reply. 

He  recapitulated  their  late  murders,  and  par- 
ticularly the  destruction  of  four  of  his  messengers, 
whom  they  had  killed.  He  accused  them  of  violat- 
ing all  their  former  engagements,  saying — "You 
have  promised  at  every  former  treaty,  as  you  do  now, 
that  you  would  deliver  up  all  your  prisoners,  and  have 
received  every  time  on  that  account  considerable  pres- 
ents, but  have  never  complied  with  that  or  with  any 
other  engagement.  I  am  now  to  tell  you,  therefore, 
that  we  will  no  longer  be  imposed  upon  by  your  prom- 
ises. This  army  shall  not  leave  your  country  till  you 
have  complied  with  every  condition  that  is  to  precede 
my  treaty  with  you.  If  I  find  you  faithfully  execute 
the  following  preliminary  conditions,  I  will  not  treat 
you  with  the  severity  you  deserve.  I  will  give  you 
twelve  days  from  this  to  deliver  into  my  hands,  at 
Wakatomaka,  all  the  prisoners  in  your  possession, 
without  any  exception,  Englishmen,  Frenchmen,  wo- 
men and  children,  whether  adopted  into  your  tribes, 
married,  or  living  amongst  you,  under  any  denomina- 
tion or  pretence  whatsoever,  with  all  negroes.  And 
you  are  to  furnish  the  said  persons  with  clothing,  pro- 
visions, and  horses  to  carry  them  to  Fort  Pitt." 

To  this  the  Shawanese  in  a  dogged  manner  replied 
that  they  would  submit  to  whatever  the  other  tribes 
should  agree.  The  chief  of  the  Senecas,  addressing 
the  nations,  desired  them  to  comply  with  their  engage- 
ments, in  order  "  that  they  might  wipe  away  the  re- 
proach of  their  former  breach  of  faith,  and  convince 
their  English  brothers  that  they  could  speak  the  truth." 


lil  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

On  Monday  the  22d  the  troops  broke  up  camp, 
and  proceeded  down  the  west  bank  of  the  Muskingum 
toward  the  Wakatomaka  towns  about  the  mouth  of 
the  Whitewoman.  The  deputations  accompanied  them 
as  guides. 

They  reach  the  highland  one  mile  north  of  the 
mouth  of  the  Walhonding  or  Whitewoman,  on  Thurs- 
day, and  make  a  camp.  The  distance  of  this  point 
from  the  mouth  of  Big  Beaver  or  Mahoning  river,  by 
the  route  of  the  army,  is  one  hundred  and  one  miles 
and  eighty-three  rods. 

Colonel  Boquet  caused  a  stockade  to  be  built,  with 
four  redoubts,  and  erected  cabins  and  storehouses, 
determined  to    wait  for  the  arrival  of  the  prisoners. 

After  two  days,  Custaloga  sent  word  that  they 
were  coming,  and  so  did  the  Shawanese.  The  lat- 
ter tribe  had  a  terrible  notoriety  among  the  whites, 
not  only  for  their  ferocity  in  war,  but  for  treachery 
and  cruelty  to  prisoners.  They  had  been  seated  upon 
the  Susquehannah,  and  driven  thence  by  the  Six  Na- 
tions, had  gone  to  North  Carolina,  and  from  thence 
returned  to  the  Ohio  River  near  Shawneetown,  Illinois. 
The  other  tribes  would  not  allow  them  a  fixed  resi- 
dence among  them,  on  account  of  their  piratical  hab- 
its ;  but  gave  them  permission  to  remain  for  a  time  on 
the  Scioto,  and  afterwards  on  the  great  Miami. 

Captain  Hutchins  lays  down  twenty-four  Indian 
towns  on  his  map,  which  were  situated  on  the  Waters 
of  the  Mahoning,  the  Cuyahoga,  Muskingum,  and  Sci- 
oto. The  troops  had  now  reached  a  central  position 
among  these  towns,  and  consequently  their  influence 
over  the  tribe  was  at  its  height. 

During  the  previous  winter  Colonel  Boquet  had  sent 
a  letter  to  the  French  Commandant,  at  Fort  Char- 
tres  on  the  Mississippi.  The  Shawanese  had  detained 
this  message,  and  he  now  sent  one  of  their  number  to 


COLONEL  BOQUET'S   EXPEDITION.  275 

get  it.  On  Sunday  the  messenger  returned  without 
the  letter,  but  said  the  prisoners  were  coming  in. 
Here  the  commandant  received  a  despatch  from  Gen- 
eral Bradstreet,  written  and  sent  from  the  Sandusky 
River,  which  was  brought  in  by  a  Caughnewaga  chief 
named  Peter,  with  twenty  warriors.  It  stated  that 
Bradstreet  had  made  a  general  peace  with  the  western 
Indians  as  far  as  the  Illinois,  but  that  the  Delawares 
and  Shawanese  were  not  included.  Peter  said  that 
very  few  prisoners  had  been  delivered  at  Sandusky, 
and  that  some  of  them  had  been  killed.  Prisoners 
were  coming  every  day  to  the  fort  at  Walhonding. 
Custaloga  and  Beaver  said  that  they  had  produced  all 
of  theirs  but  twelve,  promised  to  deliver  those,  and  de- 
sired to  shake  hands.  But  Colonel  Boquet  refused  to 
speak  to  them  till  all  were  brought  in. 

On  the  9th  of  November  206  prisoners,  including 
women  and  children,  had  been  delivered,  of  whom  32 
men  and  58  women  and  children  were  from  Virginia, 
and  49  males  and  67  females  from  Pennsylvania. 

Signs  of  the  approach  of  winter  began  to  appear, 
the  trees  shed  their  leaves,  and  the  raw  winds  of  the 
north  moaned  among  their  branches.  The  troops  be- 
gan to  look  with  anxiety  for  the  order  to  return,  and 
the  commander  learning  that  the  remaining  prisoners, 
about  100  in  number,  were  absent  on  a  hunting  expe- 
dition, saw  they  could  not  be  expected  that  season. 
He  determined  to  close  the  affair,  and  make  his  win- 
ter quarters  at  Fort  Pitt. 

A  conference  was  held  on  the  same  day  in  a  rude 
shed  made  of  logs  and  branches.  Captain  Hutchins 
appears  to  have  been  acquainted  with  our  illustrious 
countryman,  Benjamin  West,  for  Mr.  West  made  a 
design  of  this  conference,  which  was  engraved  and 
attached  to  Hutchins'  work.  Like  Mr.  West,  Captain 
Hutchins  in  the   Revolution  joined  the  whigs,   and 


276  FUGITIVE  ESSAYS. 

afterwards  became  the  geographer  of  the  United 
States,  under  the  Confederation,  and  appears  to  have 
been  the  first  man  who  devised  the  plan  of  surveying 
the  public  land  in  sections  of  one  mile  square.  At 
this  conference  the  warriors  delivered  the  last  of  their 
prisoners  and  asked  for  peace.  Colonel  Boquet  re- 
plied that  he  was  not  empowered  by  his  king  to  make 
peace,  but  only  to  make  war ;  that  Sir  William  John- 
son was  intrusted  with  the  power  to  give  peace,  and 
in  the  mean  time  "  you  will  deliver  me  two  hostages 
for  the  Senecas  and  two  for  the  Custalogas  tribe,  to 
remain  at  Fort  Pitt  as  security  that  you  will  commit 
no  farther  hostilities  or  violence  against  his  Majesty's 
subjects,  and  when  peace  is  concluded  these  hostages 
shall  be  delivered  safe  back  to  you.  Secondly,  the 
deputies  you  send  Sir  William  Johnson  must  be  fully 
empowered  to  treat  for  you  and  your  tribes,  and  you 
shall  engage  to  abide  by  whatsoever  they  shall  stipu- 
late." 

It  was  agreed  that  Captain  John  and  Captain 
Pipe,  two  hostages  then  at  Fort  Pitt,  should  be  imme- 
diately returned  to  them.  After  this,  Colonel  Boquet 
shook  hands  with  them  for  the  first  time,  which  gave 
them  great  gratification. 

On  the  next  day,  in  the  presence  of  the  Senecas, 
the  Turkey  band  of  the  Delawares,  and  also  the  Tur- 
tle band,  exchanged  speeches,  and  agreed  to  the  same 
number  of  hostages  as  the  Senecas  had  done.  They 
also  promised  to  deliver  up  an  Englishman  charged 
with  murdering  and  scalping  a  white  mail. 

The  formalities  and  business  proceeded  slowly,  as 
usual,  with  Indians,  who  are  loquacious  in  eouncil  in 
proportion  as  they  are  moody  in  conversation; 

On  the  11th,  King  Beaver  presented  six  hostages 
and  five  deputies  for  the  approval  of  the  British  com- 
n.auder.      These   he  accepted,  but   told   them  that  a 


COLONEL   BOQUET'S   EXPEDITION.  277 

chief  of  theirs,  by  the  name  of  Nettowhatways,  hav- 
ing refused  to  appear  at  the  council,  must  be  deposed, 
and  another  elected  in  his  place.  So  thoroughly  were 
they  subdued  that  they  obeyed  this  humiliating  de- 
mand and  chose  another  chief. 

The  Shawanese  were  dilatory,  haughty,  and  sullen. 
But  they  appeared  on  the  12th  with  two  chiefs,  five 
head  men,  and  forty  warriors ;  and  before  all  the 
tribes,  Med  Hawke,  one  of  their  orators,  made  the 
following  speech.  He  spoke  with  pride,  mingled  with 
an  ill-concealed  submission,  and  said,  "  Brother,  you 
will  listen  to  us,  your  younger  brothers ;  and  as  we 
discover  something  in  your  eyes  that  looks  dissatisfac- 
tion with  us,  we  now  wipe  away  everything  bad  be- 
tween us  that  you  may  clearly  see. 

"  You  have  heard  many  bad  stories  of  us  ;  we  clear 
your  ears  that  you  may  hear. 

"  Brother,  we  saw  you  coming  this  road  ;  you  ad- 
vanced with  a  tomahawk  in  your  hand ;  but  we,  your 
younger  brothers,  took  it  out  of  your  hands,  and 
threw  it  up  to  God  to  dispose  of  as  he  pleases,  by 
which  means  we  hope  to  see  it  no  more." 

lied  Hawke  then  produced  a  treaty  made  with  the 
Penns,  in  1701,  and  several  letters  from  the  proprie- 
tors. He  then  desired  a  renewal  of  those  ancient 
friendships,  promising  that  the  prisoners  now  absent 
on  the  hunting  expedition  should  be  brought  to  Fort 
Pitt  in  the  ensuing  spring. 

Colonel  Boquet  said  in  return,  "  that  the  speech 
would  have  been  very  agreeable  if  their  actions  had 
corresponded  with  their  words,"  and  that  they  had 
not  kept  their  agreement,  made  with  him  at  the  Tus- 
carawas village  a  few  days  before.  He  asks  them 
whether  they  will  "  forthwith  deliver  up  all  their  pris- 
oners and  the  Frenchmen  living  with  them,  and  all 
negroes,  without  exception  or  evasion,"  and  whether 
24 


278  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

they  will  "  give  six  hostages  for  the  performance  of 
this  agreement  and  as  security  against  further  hos- 
tility?" 

Benevissico  replied  that  they  agreed  to  all  except 
as  to  the  Frenchmen,  whom,  he  remarked,  were  Eng- 
lish subjects,  over  whom  the  Shawanese  had  no  power. 

During  the  winter,  their  hostages  escaped  from 
Fort  Pitt ;  but  when  the  tribes  passed  that  way  in  the 
spring  to  meet  Sir  William  Johnson,  the  prisoners 
they  had  promised  were  brought  in. 

On  the  18th  of  November  the  army  broke  up  its 
cantonment  at  the  Whitewoman,  and  returned  to  Fort 
Pitt,  which  they  reached  on  the  28th  of  the  same 
month. 

This  expedition  was  conducted  with  so  much  skill 
and  prudence  that  none  of  those  frightful  disasters 
that  often  result  from  Indian  wars  occurred. 

The  savages,  although  in  great  strength,  found  no 
opportunity  to  make  an  attack.  No  prisoners  were 
taken,  none  died  of  sickness,  and  every  man  of  the 
party  returned  except  one,  who  was  killed  and  scalped 
by  an  Indian  when  separated  from  camp.  The  Penn- 
sylvania troops  were  under  Lieutenant-Colonel  Fran- 
cis and  Lieutenant-Colonel  Clayton.  Colonel  Reid 
was  next  in  command  to  Colonel  Boquet. 

The  Provincial  troops  were  discharged,  and  the 
regulars  sent  to  garrison  Fort  Loudon,  Fort  Bedford, 
and  Carlisle. 

Colonel  Boquet  arrived  at  Philadelphia  in  January, 
and  received  a  complimentary  address  from  the  legis- 
lature, and  also  from  the  House  of  Burgesses  of  Vir- 
ginia. Before  these  resolutions  reached  England,  the 
king  promoted  him  to  be  a  Brigadier-General.  He 
was  ordered  to  the  command  of  the  post  of  Mobile, 
and  the  next  season  died  there. 

Although  I  have  extended  this  address  to  a  great 


COLONEL   BOQUET'S  EXPEDITION.  279 

length,  there  are  a  few  incidents  connected  with  the 
expedition  that  deserve  to  be  heard. 

A  prisoner  by  the  name  of  Small  was  one  of  a 
considerable  party  that  belonged  to  a  distant  tribe. 
When  they  first  heard  of  the  invasion,  the  tribe  de- 
termined to  kill  all  the  captives,  and  then  collect  their 
warriors  and  fall  upon  the  troops.  A  Frenchman 
furnished  them  with  some  barrels  of  powder  and  ball, 
and  they  were  preparing  to  execute  their  designs  upon 
the  prisoners,  when  a  message  arrived  with  the  news 
that  a  peace  was  about  to  take  place. 

The  tribe  now  proceeded  towards  Wakatomaka. 
When  they  arrived  and  there  heard  of  the  murder 
and  scalping  of  the  soldier,  and  that  they  were  sus- 
pected of  having  committed  the  deed,  the  prisoners 
were  again  drawn  out  to  be  shot,  and  as  the  wretched 
creatures  were  standing  in  a  field,  preparing  to  die 
heroically,  a  second  messenger  arrived,  stating  that 
all  suspicions  of  that  tribe  were  removed,  and  that 
they  would  be  received  in  council.  This  caused  them 
to  spare  the  prisoners,  and  to  deliver  them  at  camp 
alive. 

The  scene  which  took  place  when  the  captives  ar- 
rived among  their  friends,  I  give  in  the  words  of  Mr. 
Hutchins : 

"  Language  indeed  can  but  weakly  describe  the 
scene,  one  to  which  the  poet  or  painter  might  have 
repaired  to  enrich  the  highest  colorings  of  the  variety 
of  the  human  passions,  the  philosopher  to  find  ample 
subject  for  the  most  serious  reflection,  and  the  man 
to  exercise  all  the  tender  and  sympathetic  feelings  of 
the  soul." 

There  were  to  be  seen  fathers  and  mothers  recog- 
nizing and  clasping  their  once  lost  babes,  husbands 
hanging  round  the  necks  of  their  newly-recovered 
wives,  sisters  and  brothers  unexpectedly  meeting  to- 


280  FUGITIVE  ESSAYS. 

gether  after  a  long  separation,  scarcely  able  to  speak 
the  same  language,  or  for  some  time  to  be  sure  that 
they  were  the  children  of  the  same  parents.  In  all 
these  interviews  joy  and  rapture  inexpressible  were 
seen,  while  feelings  of  a  very  different  nature  were 
painted  iu  the  looks  of  others,  flying  from  place  to 
piaee  in  eager  inquiries  after  relatives  not  found, 
trembling  to  receive  an  answer  to  questions ;  dis- 
traeted  with  doubts,  hopes,  and  fears  on  obtaining  no 
aeoount  of  those  they  sought  for;  or  stiffened  into 
living  monuments  of  horror  and  woe  on  learning  their 
unhappy  fate. 

The  Indians,  too,  as  if  wholly  forgetting  their 
usual  Bftvageaess,  bore  a  capita]  part  in  heightening 
this  most  affecting  scene.  They  delivered  up  their 
beloved  captives  with  the  utmost  reluctance  — 
torrents  of  tears  over  them  —  recommending  them  to 
the  care  and  protection  of  the  commanding  officer. 

Their  regard  to  them  continued  all  the  while  they 
remained  in  eamp.  They  visited  them  from  day  to 
day,  brought  them  what  corn,  skins,  horses,  and  other 
matters  had  been  bestowed  upon  them  while  in  their 
families,  accompanied  with  other  presents,  and  all  the 
marks  of  the  most  sincere  and  tender  affection.  Nay, 
they  did  not  stop  here ;  but  when  the  army  marched, 
some  of  the  Indians  solieited  and  obtained  permission 
to  accompany  their  former  captives  to  Fort  Pitt,  and 
employed  themselves  in  hunting  and  bringing  provi- 
sions for  them  on  the  way.  A  young  Mingo  carried 
this  still  farther,  and  gave  an  instance  of  love  which 
would  make  a  figure  even  in  romance.  A  young 
woman  of  Virginia  was  among  the  captives,  to  whom 
he  had  formed  so  strong  an  attachment  as  to  eall  her 
his  wife.  Against  all  the  remonstrances  of  the  im- 
minent danger  to  whieh  he  exposed  himself  by  ap- 
proaehing  the  frontier,  he  persisted  in  following  her, 


COLONEL   BOQUET'S   EXPEDITION.  281 

at  the  risk  of  being  killed  by  the  surviving  relatives 
of  many  unfortunate  persons  who  had  been  taken 
captives  or  scalped  by  those  of  his  nation. 

Among  the  captives  a  woman  was  brought  into 
camp  at  Muskingum,  with  a  babe  about  three  months 
old  at  the  breast.  One  of  the  Virginia  volunteers 
soon  knew  her  to  be  his  wife  !  She  had  been  taken  by 
the  Indians  about  six  months  before.  He  flew  with 
her  to  his  tent,  and  clothed  her  and  his  child  with 
proper  apparel.  But  their  joy,  after  the  first  trans- 
ports, was  soon  dampened  by  the  reflection  that  ano- 
ther dear  child  about  two  years  old,  taken  with  the 
mother,  had  been  separated  from  her,  and  was  still 
missing,  although  many  children  had  been  brought  in. 

A  few  days  afterwards,  a  number  of  other  persons 
were  brought  in,  among  them  was  several  children. 
The  woman  was  sent  for,  and  one  supposed  to  be  hers 
was  produced  to  her.  At  first  sight  she  was  not  cer- 
tain ;  but  viewing  the  child  with  great  earnestness  she 
soon  recollected  its  features,  and  was  so  overcome 
with  joy,  that,  forgetting  her  sucking  child,  she  dropt 
it  from  her  arms,  and  catching  up  the  new  found  child, 
in  ecstasy,  pressed  it  to  her  breast,  and  bursting  into 
tears  carried  it  off,  unable  to  speak  for  joy.  The 
father,  rising  up  with  the  babe  she  had  let  fall,  fol- 
lowed her  in  no  less  transport  and  affection. 

But  it  must  not  be  deemed  that  there  were  not 
some  even  grown  persons  who  showed  an  unwil- 
lingness to  return.  The  Shawanese  were  obliged  to 
bind  some  of  their  prisoners,  and  force  them  along  to 
the  camp ;  and  some  women,  who  had  been  delivered 
up,  afterwards  found  means  to  escape,  and  went  bad* 
to  the  Indian  tribes.  Some,  who  could  not  make  their 
escape,  clung  to  their  savage  acquaintances  at  part» 
ing,  and  continued  many  days  in  bitter  lamentations, 
even  refusing  sustenance. 
24* 


TWO  MONTHS  IN  THE  COPPER  REGIONS. 

[National  Magazine,  February,  1846.] 


It  was  on  the  14th  day  of  August,  1845,  that  our 
party  Went  on  board  a  light  and  well  built  yawl,  of 
about  four  tons,  moored  in  the  still  water  above  the 
rapids  of  the  St.  Mary's  River.  We  were  venturing 
upon  an  experiment.  We  could  not  learn  that  such 
a  craft  had  ever  put  forth  alone  upon  the  waters  of 
Lake  Superior,  and  our  intention  was  to  follow  the 
south  coast  as  far  as  the  season  would  permit.  For 
hundreds  of  years  this  lake  had  been  navigated  by  the 
bark  canoe,  and  parties  were  setting  off  every  day  for 
Copper  Harbor,  La  Pointe,  and  other  remote  points, 
in  these  apparently  frail  vessels,  but  which  the  expe- 
rience of  centuries  had  demonstrated  to  be  the  safest 
conveyance  known.  The  Mackinaw  boats  had  long 
traversed  these  shores,  transporting  goods  to  the  Fur 
Company's  posts,  and  returning  with  furs. 

These  long,  narrow,  flat-bottom  boats,  carry  a 
heavy  burden,  go  well  before  the  wind,  and  are  easily 
drawn  ashore.  The  bark  canoe,  like  the  Mackinaw 
boat,  has  no  keel,  and  the  safety  of  both  consists  in 
befog  able  to  make  a  harbor  of  every  sand  beach,  in 
case  of  a  storm.  The  expert  voyageur  has  a  kind  of 
•second  sight  in  regard  to  weather,  smelling  a  storm 
while  it  is  yet  a  great  way  off.  It  is  only  when  a  great 
saving  maybe  made,  and  the  weather  is  perfectly  lair, 
that  he  ventures  to  leave  the  vicinity  of  the  shore, 
and  cross  from  point  to  point  in  the  open  sea*      Thcsj 


TWO  MONTHS  IN    THE  COPPER  REGIONS.  283 

passages  are  called  "traverses;"  and  such  is  the  sud- 
denness with  which  storms  arise,  that  a  traverse  of  ten 
or  fifteen  miles,  even  in  fair  weather,  and  while  every 
indication  is  favorable,  is  regarded  as  a  hazardous  op- 
eration. Some  daring  boatmen  make  them  of  thirty 
miles. 

Of  course,  the  birch  canoe  and  the  Mackinaw  boat, 
being  without  keels,  cannot  sail  upon  the  wind.  Our 
yawl,  with  a  keel  of  four  inches,  having  nine  men  and 
a  ton  of  provisions  aboard,  sank  about  sixteen  inches 
in  the  water.  She  was  provided  with  a  cotton  square 
sail,  containing  forty  square  yards,  and  had  row  locks 
for  six  oars.  How  she  would  row,  how  she  would  sail, 
and  how  she  would  brave  the  storm,  we  could  only 
surmise,  and  the  surmises  were  rather  against  the  lit- 
tle vessel. 

The  portage  over  which  goods  now  pass,  from  the 
level  of  Lake  Huron  to  that  of  Lake  Superior,  is  a 
flat,  wet,  marShy  piece  of  land,  about  three-fourths  of 
a  mile  across.  To  the  westward,  the  country  appears 
to  be  lowT  and  swampy  as  far  as  the  view  extends, 
which  however  is  limited  by  the  thick  timber,  princi- 
pally spruce,  pine,  white  cedar,  birch,  and  hemlock. 
But  a  walk  of  one  mile  in  that  direction  brought  me 
to  a  low  eminence  rising  out  of  a  cedar  swamp,  com- 
posed of  masses  of  rolled  granite  and  other  primitive 
rocks,  in  size  from  a  small  pebble  to  a  diameter  of  ten 
feet.  The  timber  among  them  had  been  lately  black- 
ened by  a  raging  fire.  The  trunks  of  these  charred 
trees,  some  standing  erect,  some  leaning  against  oth- 
ers, and  many  prostrate  on  the  rocks,  contrasted  hide- 
ously with  the  white  and  nakedness  of  those  immense 
granite  boulders  which  covered  the  surface. 

On  the  north  and  east,  in  the  province  of  Canada, 
a  high  range  of  mountains  extends  in  each  direction 
out  of  sight.     They  were  first  visible  at  the  head  of 


284  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

St.  Joseph's  Island,  having  the  jagged  outline  of  trap- 
rocks.  The  view  from  the  low  ground  on  the  Ameri- 
can side,  towards  the  high  land  across  the  river,  is 
extensive  and  gratifying.  In  front  is  the  river,  a  mile 
broad,  and  the  rapids.  At  the  opposite  shore,  the  es- 
tablishment of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  half  com- 
mercial, half  military,  with  a  stockade  and  white 
houses.  For  several  miles  down  the  river  there  are 
houses  on  the  bank,  and  farms  extending  back,  at  ir- 
regular distances  up  the  mountains.  Here  the  traders, 
voyagers,  missionaries,  factors,  Indian  agents,  and  In- 
dians, reside  promiscuously  —  such  is  the  foreground 
of  the  view.  Behind  and  beyond  rise  the  mountain 
ranges,  in  that  pure  atmosphere  perfectly  distinct  at 
the  distance  of  twenty  miles. 

Our  tents  were  struck  at  7  o'clock,  A.  M.,  and  the 
journey  began.  There  were  other  parties  scattered 
about  the  open  space  at  the  warehouse ;  some  had 
regular  tents,  some  sheltered  themselves  under  a  broad 
piece  of  India  rubber  cloth,  stretched  over  a  pole  like 
the  roof  a  house.  One  party  had  a  conical  tent,  with 
an  upright  pole  in  the  centre,  the  canvass  spread  out 
around  the  foot ;  and  another,  in  default  of  other  cov- 
ering, lay  snoring  under  a  cotton  bed- tick,  stretched 
across  the  bushes.  A  party  of  surveyors  were  en- 
camped near  the  landing,  from  a  cruise  of  three 
months  in  the  interior.  This  party  had  run  a  tier  of 
townships,  from  Mackinaw  northward,  into  sections  of 
one  mile  square.  These  men  encamped  a  few  days  at 
this  place  to  recruit  their  tattered  garments,  of  which 
only  the  shreds  and  fragments  remained.  In  enter- 
prises of  this  sort,  it  is  only  by  physical  energy,  and 
great  powers  of  endurance,  that  the  contractor  can 
realise  anything  from  the  prices  allowed  by  Govern- 
ment for  its  original  surveys.  They  provision  them- 
selves by  carrying  all  on  their  backs,  from  the  depots 


TWO  MONTHS  IN  THE  COPPER  REGIONS.  285 

on  the  shore.  The  thickets  through  which  they  pur- 
sue their  work,  week  after  week,  and  month  after 
month,  would  be  declared  absolutely  impracticable  to 
a  person  not  trained  in  that  school.  No  beast  of  bur- 
den could  pass  without  bridges,  even  in  case  a  path- 
way should  be  cut  through  the  matted  evergreens  that 
cover  the  ground.  To  make  a  path  for  a  horse  or 
mule  would  consume. more  time  and  labor  per  mile 
than  the  survey  itself.  There  is  a  hardy  class  of 
Frenchmen  and  half-breeds,  cousin-german  to  the 
Canadian  voyageur,  called  "packers;"  they  were 
bred  in  the  service  of  the  Fur  Companies,  to  carry 
goods  from  the  nearest  landing  to  the  trading  post, 
and  return  with  a  pack  of  furs.  The  surveyors  found 
these  packers  indispensable  to  their  operations.  They 
will  carry  from  fifty  to  seventy  pounds,  and  can  trav- 
el alone  in  the  recesses  of  the  forest  without  fear  of 
losing  their  way. 

They  are  patient,  cheerful,  and  obedient ;  in  fact, 
they  are  on  land  what  the  voyageur  is  upon  the  wa- 
ter. His  capacity  for  food  corresponds  with  his  abili- 
ty to  endure  fatigue,  and  his  great  care  is  to  secure 
it  in  sufficient  quantity.  He  makes,  with  a  little  in- 
struction, an  excellent  axe-man  and  chain-man.  If 
circumstances  prevent  a  return  to  the  camp,  or  the 
rendezvous,  he  can  lie  down  at  the  foot  of  a  tree, 
sleep  till  daybreak,  and  resume  his  tramp  without 
complaint. 

The  party  which  joined  our  encampment .  here 
was  a  subject  for  Catlin,  the  Indian  sketcher.  More 
hale,  hearty,  and  jovial  fellows,  never  broke  into  the 
limits  of  civilization.  The  northern  atmosphere  had 
tinged  their  cheeks  with  red,  they  were  all  young  and 
active  men,  glowing  with  that  high  animal  life,  that 
extreme  buoyancy  of  spirits,  which  is  a  stranger  to  the 
inhabitants  of  cities,  to  those  who  toss  upon  feather 
beds,  and  live  upon  soups  and  comfits. 


286  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

This  rugged  company,  full  of  fun  and  frolic,  with 
beards  of  three  months'  cultivation,  red  flannel  shirts, 
and  fustian  trowsers  in  shreds,  white  beaver  hats, 
less  the  border,  some  in  shoes,  some  in  moccasins, 
and  some  in  boots,  from  all  of  which  various  toes 
were  looking  out,  surprised  even  the  worthy  burghers 
of  the  Sault.  The  Sault  St.  Marie  has  been  a  trad- 
ing post  more  than  two  hundred  years.  The  good 
Catholics,  Ramboult  and  Jouges,  preached  repentance 
to  the  Nodowessie8,  or  Sioux,  on  this  spot,  in  1641, 
whom  the  French  traders  immediately  followed.  Here 
it  may  be  said  the  borders  of  civilization  have  been 
fixed  for  two  centuries.  In  consequence,  a  mixed 
race  has  arisen,  neither  the  representatives  of  refine- 
ment nor  of  barbarism,  but  of  a  medium  state.  It  may 
well  be  supposed,  that  a  band  of  jolly  fellows,  habited 
as  we  have  described  these  hardy  surveyors,  axe-men, 
chain-men,  and  packers,  would  not  attract  here  that 
attention  which  they  would  in  New  York,  or  in  Lon- 
don. But  they  appeared  to  be  objects  of  no  litle  in- 
terest and  curiosity  to  the  worthy  inhabitants  of  the 
Sault,  especially  as  some  of  them  were  so  disfigured 
that  their  old  friends  did  not  recognize  them. 

Looking  back  from  the  water,  upon  the  collection 
of  tents,  and  lodges,  we  had  a  view  of  the  group  at 
one  glance,  and  the  scene  from  the  new  point  of  ob- 
servation suggested  ideas  that  had  not  presented 
themselves  while  we  formed  a  part  of  it.  Around 
some  of  the  camp-fires  were  gentlemen  from  the  At- 
lantic shores,  with  genteel  caps  and  surtouts,  shiver- 
ing in  the  raw  wind  of  the  morning.  Poor  fellows ! 
impelled  by  the  hope  of  wealth  to  be  found  in  the 
copper  region,  they  had  rushed  at  steamboat  rates  to 
the  extremity  of  navigation,  of  taverns,  and  perma- 
nent habitations. 

The  reality  of  copper  exploration  had  now  com- 


TWO  MONTHS  IN  THE  COPPER  REGIONS.  287 

menced.  A  night  of  drizzling  rain  and  fog  had  heen 
passed,  in  a  cold  tent,  on  wet  ground.  Among  them 
were  seated  voyageurs  and  half-breeds,  as  happy  as  a 
plenty  of  grub  could  make  them.  The  raw  wind  was 
no  annoyance  to  them,  so  long  as  there  was  a  flint 
and  steel  to  start  a  fire,  and  a  plentiful  stock  of  pro- 
visions. Between  the  cap  and  surtout,  and  the  flan- 
nel shirt  and  canvass  trousers,  was  every  grade  of  men 
represented  by  a  grade  of  habiliments. 

In  front  of  this  motley  collection  of  persons  and 
things  lay  the  frame  of  a  large  schooner,  on  which 
fifty  workmen  were  laying  the  plank  —  all  its  timbers 
and  lumber  brought  from  the  lower  lakes ;  and  in  the 
open  level  space  beyond,  along  a  track  cleared  through 
the  swamp,  stood  the  spars  of  a  vessel,  advancing  on 
solid  land  towards  the  basin  above  the  falls.  The  la- 
bor and  expense  of  bringing  vessels  overland,  or  the 
timber  to  construct  them  with,  is  unavoidable.  As 
far  as  known,  there  is  not  ship  timber  enough  on  Lake 
Superior  to  build  a  schooner. 

The  rock  which  causes  the  rapids  is  a  close,  fine- 
grained red  sandstone,  in  thin  layers,  pitching  to  the 
northward.  There  has  been  much  diversity  of  opin- 
ion among  geologists,  about  the  geological  position  of 
this  rock.  As  I  proceed,  I  shall  again  notice  this 
rock,  and  its  analogy,  which  occupies  almost  the  en- 
tire southern  coast  of  the  lake. 

The  first  principal  meridian  of  the  United  States 
surveys  comes  out  on  the  waters  of  St  Marie's,  at 
the  ship  yard,  just  above  the  rapids.  This  is  a  true 
meridian,  run  with  great  care  from  the  base  line, 
which  is  about  twelve  miles  north  of  Detroit.  The 
first  meridian  is  about  thirty  miles  west  of  Detroit, 
and,  passing  up  through  the  peninsula  of  Michigan, 
crosses  the  straits  near  Mackinaw.  By  the  Govern- 
ment system    of  rectangular  co-ordinates,    referred 


288  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

always  to  a  given  base  and  meridian,  an  observer 
knows  his  exact  position,  wherever  he  may  be,  in  the 
surveyed  portions  of  the  United  States.  Every  town- 
ship is  six  miles  square,  every  section  one  mile  square, 
every  quarter  section  half  a  mile  square.  Every  sec- 
tion corner  has  permanent  marks  on  some  adjacent 
tree  which  gives  the  situation  of  that  corner  from  its 
proper  base  and  meridian.  I  make  this  explanation 
to  give  light  upon  terms  that  I  shall  use  hereafter. 
In  traversing  the  American  shore  of  Lake  Superior, 
we  found  as  far  as  the  Porcupine  Mountains,  west  of 
the  Ontonagon,  that  the  surveyors  had  preceded  us. 
During  the  present  and  the  past  year  they  had  ex- 
tended the  township  lines  to  this  distance  along  the 
coast,  and  for  a  part  of  this  distance  had  sub-divided 
the  townships  into  sections.  The  surveys  had  been 
carried  to  different  distances,  interior.  From  the  base 
near  Detroit,  numbering  northward,  St.  Marie's  is  in 
township  No.  47  north,  range  No.  1  east.  But  our 
point  of  embarkation  was  on  the  west  side  of  the  me- 
ridian, in  town  47  north,  range  1  west,  or  282  miles 
north  of  the  base  line. 

We  are  now  fairly  under  way,  and  shall  be  able  to 
keep  our  reckoning.  The  river  expands,  as  we  as- 
cend against  a  very  gentle  current,  the  shores  are  low 
and  swampy,  or  sandy,  and  covered  with  stinted  pines. 
In  an  hour  and  a  half,  so  easily  did  our  boat  row.  we 
were  at  "Point  Aux  Pins,"  on  the  British  side. 
At  ten  o'clock,  we  were  on  shore  at  "  Gros  Cap,'' 
looking  up  a  spar,  and  clambering  the  red  granite 
ridge,  which  here  projects  towards  the  American  shore 
—  the  extremity  of  that  range  of  mountains  in  view 
from  the  rapids  to  the  eastward.  From  the  height  of 
500  feet,  we  could  see  the  continuation  of  this  range 
v  estward  into  Michigan,  until  its  summits  were  lost  in 
the  mist.     The  eastern  extremity  of  the  American 


TWO  MONTHS  IN  THE  COPPER  REGIONS.  289 

range  is  "Point  Iroquois,"  nearly  opposite  "  Gros 
Cap,"  where  the  Chippeways,  by  their  ancestors, 
fought  a  great  battle  with  the  Iroquois,  long  before 
the  French  came  into  these  waters.  The  range  is 
called  the  "  Tequamenon  Mountains,"  overlooking  for 
some  twenty  miles  a  deep  bay,  known  as  the  Tequa- 
menon  Bay.  The  waters  about  "  Gros  Gap  "  are  so 
clear  that  the  bottom  is  seen  from  fifty  to  sixty  feet 
below  the  surface. 

Before  leaving  this  inhospitable  crag,  we  set  fire 
to  a  windfall  of  about  two  years  of  age,  and  conse- 
quently in  a  fine  state  for  a  conflagration.  This  was 
not  done  through  any  republican  contempt  of  the 
British  Queen,  or  her  territory,  but  from  pure  benev- 
olence towards  subsequent  travellers  exploring  "  Gros 
Gap."  It  lay  between  the  ridge  and  the  bay,  in  a 
swamp  so  thickly  covered  with  prostrate  trees  that 
one  might  go  a  quarter  of  a  mile  on  them  without 
touching  the  ground,  unless  an  unlucky  misstep  should 
precipitate  him  into  the  mud  beneath.  At  1  o'clock, 
we  were  at  "Isle  Farisien,"  a  low  island,  five  \miles 
long,  cooking  a  dinner  and  procuring  a  better  spar. 

We  succeeded  here  so  well  in  fitting  our  sail,  that 
the  traverse  of  fifteen  miles  to  u  White-fish  Point," 
ordinarily  a  hazardous  voyage,  was  safely  and  pleas- 
antly made,  a  little  after  dark,  and  the  wind,  though 
light,  being  still  fair,  we  ran  into  the  lake  without 
landing,  and  made  along  the  shore.  We  were  now  up- 
on the  largest  body  of  fresh  water  on  the  globe,  call- 
ed by  the  Indians  Kitche-gomig ;  by  the  French, 
Superievf,  or  Upper,  and  corrupted  by  the  English 
into  "  Superior." 

The  moon  shonfl  dimly  through  a  heavy  sky,  the  wa- 
ter was  merely  ruffled  by  a  warm  southern  breeze,  and 
in  the  distance  the  flame  of  the  burning  windfall  shone 
conspicuously  above  the  mountains.     On  the  Michigan 
25 


290  FUGITIVE     ESSAYS. 

side  several  large  tracts  of  burning  timber  were  seen 
on  the  hills  at  the  head  of  Tequamenon  Bay.  It  was 
determined  to  proceed  as  long  as  the  wind  continued 
favorable,  but  in  a  short  time  it  failed  altogether,  and 
we  went  ashore  at  half-past  eleven  and  encamped. 
The  ground  here  lav  in  a  series  of  low  sand  ridges, 
with  scattered  pines.  Distance  from  the  Sault,  forty- 
five  miles. 

At  sunrise  everything  was  on  board,  and  the  sail 
spread  before  a  fair  wind.  Along  the  beach  the  surf 
has  piled  a  ridge  of  water-washed  granitic  gravel,  five 
to  six  feet  high,  the  deep  water  holding  out  quite  to 
the  shore.  In  coasting  in  an  open  boat,  the  traveller 
must  resign  all  hope  of  regularity  of  hours,  of  meals, 
and  of  sleep.  His  sovereign  is  the  weather :  when 
that  is  calm,  he  may  proceed  with  the  "  white-ash 
breeze,"  as  the  sailors  say:  when  the  wind  is  ahead, 
he  can  take  his  ease — provided  he  is  safe  on  shore  ! 
but  when  it  is  fair,  he  must  always  be  before  it.  The 
prevailing  winds  along  this  shore  are  from  the  west 
at  this  season  ;  and  consequently  they  are  ahead  as 
you  go  up  the  lake. 

Breakfast  on  board,  upon  cold  beans,  cold  pork, 
and  hard  bread. 

Towards  evening  the  wind  came  so  strong  ahead 
as  to  oblige  us  to  put  into  the  mouth  of  u  Two-Heart " 
River,  a  stream  sufficiently  deep  to  float  a  large  ves- 
sel  inside  the  bar,  but  not  deep  enough  to  carry  the 
yawl  with  her  load.  Of  the  streams  discharging  into 
the  lake  from  the  south,  only  two  or  three  are  known 
with  open  mouths.  At  most  of  them  it  was  necessary 
to  lighten  the  boa}  and  haul  her  over,  with  about  the 
same  labor  and  discomfort  as  though  there  was  no 
channel;  but,  once  inside,  a  quiet  harbor  was  alt 
found.  These  months  are  so  completely  sealed  up, 
and  concealed  by  sand  ridges,   that  persons  may  pass 


TWO  MONTHS  IN  THE  COPPER  REGIONS  291 

them  within  ten  rods  of  shore,  and  not  discover  that  a 
creek  is  there. 

The  shore  is  composed  of  low,  monotonous  sand 
ridges,  with  stinted  pines.  The  bluff  is  from  fifty  to 
eighty  feet  high,  presenting  a  stratified  edge  of  sand, 
ineiiiR'd  gently  to  the  east,  not  exceeding  ten  feet  in 
a  mile.  The  ridges  run  from  the  interior  nearly  per- 
pendicular to  the  direction  of  the  shore. 

We  passed  several  fishing  huts,  now  deserted,  with 
plenty  of  empty  salt  barrels  and  fish-scales  scattered 
around. 

A  little  east  of  the  mouth  of  the  creek  we  observed, 
in  sailing  up,  several  picketed  enclosures  among  the 
pines  on  a  beautiful  ridge.  They  were  Indian  graves, 
thus  strongly  guarded  to  keep  out  the  beasts  of  prey. 
There  are  those  who  doubt  whether  the  Indian  is  sus- 
ceptible to  the  delights  of  taste — whether  he  enjoys  a 
bright  morning,  a  clear  and  moonlit  night,  a  moun- 
tain, a  vale,  or  a  beautiful  river.  Was  it  mere  acci- 
dent that  placed  this  burying-ground  upon  so  enchant- 
ing a  spot  ?  The  lake  is  about  forty  rods  distant  in 
front,  and  about  as  many  feet  below  the  site  of  the 
graves.  Through  the  open  trees  you  see  its  waters, 
as  plainly  as  if  there  was  no  intervening  timber,  while 
the  shade  of  their  branches  is  perpetual  upon  the  spot. 
Even  the  lowest  ripple  on  the  beach  reaches  the  ear 
as  distinctly  as  the  angdest  roar  of  the  waves.  Eve- 
ry breath  of  air  that  moves  to  and  from  the  lake,  the 
evening  and  the  morning  breeze  as  well  as  the  north- 
ern tempest,  plays  audibly  upon  the  long  and  ever- 
green leaves  of  these  ancient  pines.  At  the  head  of 
each  grave  is  a  flat  shingle  or  board,  with  emblems 
painted  in  red,  or  rudely  carved  with  a  knife.  On 
one  there  are  three  red  crosses,  and  two  human  fig- 
ures, representing  a  man  and  a  woman  (doubtless  a 
husband  and  wife),  with  clasped  hands.     On  the  re- 


292  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

verse,  a  bear,  probably  the  sign  or  totem  of  the  de- 
ceased. On  the  top,  three  eagle  quills.  Some  have 
crosses,  indicating  that  a  good  Catholic  sleeps  below. 

At  an  early  hour  on  the  morning  of  the  lGth  we 
got  out  of  "  Two-Heart "  River  through  a  light  sea, 
determined  to  try  the  "ash  breeze"  against  the  west 
wind;  but  after  a  couple  of  miles  hard  rowing,  the 
regular  breeze  prevailed  :  we  could  no  longer  make 
headway,  and  put  about. 

Notwithstanding  the  sand-flies  and  mosquitoes,  it 
was  comfortable  to  lie  down  once  more  upon  the  green 
grass  and  fragrant  wintergreens  of  that  shore,  'flic 
weather  was  warm  and  hazy.  Some  wandered  through 
the  sand-hills  and  swamps;  some,  wrapped  in  blank- 
ets as  a  defence  against  the  flies,  sought  in  vain  for 
sleep ;  others,  with  the  fish-hook  and  artificial  fly, 
rowed  up  the  creek  in  pursuit  of  speckled  trout.  A 
good  dinner  and  supper  of  these  fish  was  the  result  of 
the  expedition. 

At  8  P.  M.,  the  wind  became  more  favorable,  and 
the  boat  was  headed  up  the  coast.  At  10  the  weath- 
er became  thick,  and  running  ashore  at  random,  wo 
had  the  first  trial  at  hauling  our  craft  out  of  the  water 
by  main  force.  She  proved  to  be  as  easily  handled  on 
land  as  a  Mackinaw  of  the  same  capacity,  only  requiring 
more  care.  For  a  camp  we  turned  her  over,  one  gun- 
wale resting  on  the  sand,  about  thirty  feet  from  the 
surf,  the  other  set  upon  sticks  after  the  fashion  of  a 
trap.  Under  this  we  all  crawled,  spread  our  blankets, 
and  some  of  the  party  went  to  sleep. 

Mr.  J.  K.  Dorr,  of  Detroit,  the  principal  of  the 
expedition,  had  seen  something  of  this  kind  of  life. 
Mr.  D.  P.  BushneU,  of  the  same  place,  had  long  hern 
Indian  agent  at  La  Pointe,  and  was,  of  course,  famil- 
iar with  the  country  and  this  mode  of  travelling.  An- 
other gentleman,  well   known  on  the  lakes  for  his  wit 


TWO  MONTHS  IN  THE  COPPER  REGIONS.  293 

and  vivacity,  qualities  that  generally  attend  an  exci- 
table temperament,  not  being  accustomed  to  tents, 
boats  and  camps,  found  it  rather  uncomfortable.  The 
sand,  so  soft  and  yielding  to  the  foot,  was  as  hard  as 
a  rock  to  the  bones.  The  grinding  of  the  gravel, 
thrown  incessantly  about  by  the  waves,  gave  out  a 
grating  sound  that  had  no  tendency  to  soothe  a  man 
to  rest,  especially  one  who  had  been  accustomed  to 
the  quiet  of  the  third  story  of  a  boarding-house.  Be- 
sides, there  was  some  chance  of  the  props  giving  out, 
and  the  trap  being  sprung  upon  the  legs,  arms,  and 
bodies  projecting  from  beneath.  Mike,  an  old  soldier 
who  ofliciated  as  cook ;  Martin,  a  sailor  just  from 
the  whaling  grounds  of  the  north-west  coast ;  Char- 
ley, a  giant  from  the  low  countries,  and  Patrick,  the 
other  hand,  seemed  to  pay  no  attention  to  the  hard 
bed,  the  cold  wind,  the  noisy  waves  or  to  the  doubt- 
ful props.  A  sprightly  young  clerk  of  the  company, 
fresh  from  the  counter,  though  swollen  and  tormented 
by  the  poison  of  the  sand-flics,  took  the  matter  like  a 
veteran,  and  slept  like  an  opium-eater. 

About  noon  the  next  day  we  passed  the  "  Grand 
Marais,"  a  bay  forty  miles  from  White-Fish  Point, 
with  six  feet  water  on  the  bar,  and  a  fine  harbor. 

Two  men  had  left  St.  Marie's  the  day  before  we 
did,  in  a  small  but  neat  and  clinker-built  boat,  with 
two  masts  and  a  wide  keel.  They  were  wholly  unac- 
quainted with  the  difficulties  that  lay  before  them ; 
yet  one  of  them,  by  the  name  of  Axlel,  had  been  ex- 
posed in  the  same  boat  forty-eight  hours  to  the  fury 
of  a  Lake  Michigan  storm,  and  therefore  felt  a  confi- 
dence in  fate.  Neither  of  them  had  been  on  Lake 
Superior,  and  therefore  knew  little  of  its  harbors,  rocks 
and  storms.  Their  supplies  were  salt  pork  and  bread, 
their  furniture  a  camp-kettle. 

Passing  Grand  Marais,  before  a  smart  breeze,  we 
25* 


294  FUGITIVE     ESSAYS. 

saw  their  fire  in  the  harbor,  and  shortly  their  sail 
coming  up  astern.      Here  the  low,  regular,  dreary 
shore  of  sand  suddenly  changed  to  a  lofty  wall  of  the 
same  material,  rising  from  the  water's  edge  as  Bteep 
as  it  will  lie,  to  the  height  of  400  feet.     For  twenty 
miles  back,  there  had  been  seen  near  the  water's  edge 
a  stratum  of  pebbles,  inclined  with  the  sandy  Stratum 
above  it,  to  the  eastward.     Now  the  strata  of  sand 
rests  on  a  bed  of  clay,  with  the  same  inclination,  but 
only  a  few  feet  in  the  mile.     The  Grand  Sable  struck 
us  with  more  force,  because  of  the  sudden  transition 
from  alow  uninteresting  shore,  to  a  bold,  lofty,  regular 
scarp,  four  times  the  height  of  the  tallest  trees.     But 
there  were  upon  this  Sable  no  trees  or  other  vegeta- 
tion, either  on  the  face  towards  the  lake,  whicb  wa> 
nearly  perpendicular,  or  upon  the  summit :  all  was  one 
bleak  pile  of  sand,  yet  so  clear,  so  regularly  stratified 
and  so  beautifully  variegated  by  colors,  white  and  red, 
that  the  prospect  was  not  dreary,  but  rather  sublime. 
Imagine  a  straight  wall  of  pure  sand,  four  miles  long, 
and  four  hundred  feet  high ;  the  base   lashed  by  a 
rough  sea,  its  top  enveloped  in  a  heavy  mist,  through 
which  rounded  hillocks  of  white  wind-blown  drift  oc- 
casionally rise,  as  the  eye  reaches,  mile  after  mile, 
over  the  country  behind.     To  me  this  sight  was  more 
grand  and  curious  than  the  Pictured  Rocks.     Whence 
came  this  mass  of  sand?     Its  upper  portion  has  ap- 
parently been  moved  about  by  winds,  its  lower  por- 
tions appear  to  be  too  solid  to  be  thus  moved.     Was 
it  not  in  remote  ages  like  the  low  sands  we  have  pass- 
ed, but   extending  much  farther  into  the  lake  ?     A 
prevailing  north  wind,  with  sufficient  force  to  move 
the  sand  at  the  surface,  would  overcome  vegetation, 
and,  like  the  current  of  a  river,  transport  the  parti- 
cles incessantly  in  one  direction.     By  this  means  the 
sand  would  pile  higher  and  higher,  and  the  lake,  al- 


TWO  MONTHS  IN  THE  COPPER  REGIONS.  295 

ways  encroaching  at  the  foot,  would  increase  the 
height  of  the  bluff  shore. 

The  "  Sable  "  overlies  on  the  west,  a  variegated 
sand  rock,  coarse-grained,  and  easily  broken,  pitching 
slightly  to  the  eastward.  This  is  the  first  rock  west 
of  White-fish  Point.  The  stratification  is  imperfect, 
the  color  an  irregular  mixture  of  gray  and  red. 

Turning  one  of  the  rocky  points  west  of  the 
"Grand  Sable,"  a  stiff  gale  from  the  west  put  an  end 
to  further  progress,  and  gave  warning  of  a  storm. 
The  only  expedient  in  such  an  emergency  is  to  beach 
the  boat,  and  'draw  her  out  of  the  reach  of  the  waves. 
It  is  an  operation  not  always  agreeable,  because  while 
loaded  she  cannot  be  run  upon  dry  ground,  and  to  be 
unloaded  the  goods  must  be  taken  through  the  water 
to  the  shore.  On  this  occasion  the  wetting  process 
had  been  gone  through  with  tAvo  hours  before,  duriug 
a  heavy  fall  of  rain. 

Our  baggage  was  scarcely  safe  on  land  when  the 
wind  blew  furiously,  and  our  two  friends  in  the  sail- 
boat appeared,  endeavoring  to  make  the  shore,  as  the 
sea  had  risen  so  much  that  a  landing  was  at  this  mo- 
ment not  only  uncomfortable,  but  a  little  hazardous. 

As  the  storm  increased,  our  fires  began  to  burn 
brightly.  Near  the  boats  was  a  little  dell  sheltered 
by  a  low  ridge  of  sand,  where  our  tents  were  pitched, 
and  all  made  dry  and  comfortable,  while  the  gale 
heightened  into  a  tempest. 

On  the  next  day  progress  was  impracticable,  and 
being  well  provided,  we  determined  to  give  an  en- 
tertainment. Our  friends  were  invited  at  1,  P.  M. 
We  had  bean  soup,  boiled  ham,  tea  and  coffee,  bread, 
and  pickles.  The  quantity  consumed  probably  ex- 
ceeded that  of  ordinary  dinners,  as  much  as  it  does 
at  the  annual  meals  of  the  Aldermen  of  New  York 
and  London.     As  to  style,  there  were  tin  cups  and 


296  FUGITIVE  ESSAYS. 

pewter  platters,  knives  and  spoons.  For  tables,  there 
were  the  knees  of  the  guests  and  a  spare  box ;  for 
seats,  camp-stools  and  bundles.  The  entertainment 
continued  with  great  glee  about  two  hours,  and  pass- 
ed oft*  with  as  much  sociability  and  mirth  as  though  it 
had  been  given  at  the  Astor. 

After  the  first  hour  had  been  spent  in  the  en- 
joyment of  this  cheer,  our  guests  began  to  refuse 
dishes,  by  way  of  politeness  ;  but  the  ex-Indian  .agent 
put  all  such  hesitation  aside,  by  relating  what  lie  had 
done  and  seen  in  the  Indian  country.  .  There  was 
one  example  of  an  Indian  eating  half  a  bushel  of  wild 
rice  at  a  meal.  Another,  of  a  half-breed,  who  was 
sent  out  to  bring  in  a  deer  that  had  been  killed  s<>iuo 
miles  from  the  post.  The  half-breed  lost  his  way, 
and  slept  in  the  woods  one  night.  The  next  day  in 
the  afternoon  he  came  in  without  the  dacv.  lie  was 
asked  where  lie  had  left  it.  "  Ugh  !  eat  him — do  you 
s'posc  a  man  is  to  starve?" 

One  thing  is  certain  —  in  this  high  latitude,  with 
its  pure  and  healthy  climate,  an  here  the  enervating 
effects  of  heat  upon  digestion  are  unknown,  men  may 
cat  with  impunity  what  would  be  fatal  to  them  at  the 
south. 

In  commemoration  of  the  feast,  a  little  trout  brook 
which  empties  there  was  named  "Pickle  Creek,"  and 
the  names  of  the  party  neatly  carved  on  a  neighbor- 
ing birch. 

One  of  our  guests  is  the  son  of  a  former  sheriff  in 
Canada,  who  made  the  journey  from  St.  Marie's  to 
Fort  William  by  land,  in  the  winter  of  1816.  The 
object  of  this  trip,  through  a  region  so  rough  and  for- 
bidding in  the  severity  of  the  cold  season,  was  the 
execution  of  a  warrant  upon  Lord  Selkirk,  then  in 
possession  of  that  post.  Fort  William  is  situated 
about  the  middle  of  the  north  shore,  nearly  opposite 


TWO  MONTHS  IN   THE  COPPER  .REGIONS.  297 

the  east  end  of  Isle  Royal.  The  warrant  was  issued 
from  the  King's  Bench,  and  had  reference  to  some  of 
those  acts  of  violence  that  occurred  between  the  "Hud- 
son's Bay  Company"  and  the  North-west  Company." 
The  sheriff,  whose  name  was  Smith,  at  last  reached 
the  fort,  with  ten  men.  Selkirk  professed  to  hold  and 
to  fight  under  the  ancient  chartered  rights  of  his  an- 
cestors, and  when  Smith  presented  his  authority  for 
the  arrest,  Selkirk  fell  back  on  his  charter.  Smith 
offered  the  authority  of  the  King's  Bench ;  Selkirk 
claimed  to  be  outside  of  all  civil  jurisdiction,  and  re- 
plied :  "If  you  do  not  believe  in  my  charter,  here  is 
my  authority,"  pointing  to  about  fifty  men  who  were 
ready  to  do  battle  in  such  emergencies.  lie  continued  : 
"  Instead  of  my  being  your  prisoner,  you  are  mine. 
I  will  treat  you  and  your  men  well,  yet  you  must 
take   quarters  in   the  block-house   till  I  leave  here." 

Accordingly  the  sheriff  was  obliged  to  remain  in 
custody  about  five  months,  until  the  opening  of  the 
season. 

The  timber  about  Pickle  Creek  is  black  and  white 
birch,  a  few  stinted  white  maples,  white  and  yellow 
pine,  mountain  ash,  spruce,  balsam  of  fir,  balsam  of 
spruce,  white  cedar,  and  hemlock,  none  of  it  large 
enough  to  be  valuable. 

The  next  morning  at  4,  with  a  fair  wind,  we  were 
on  the  water,  having  Grand  Island  in  sight  at  day- 
break. This  island  is  high  and  bold,  like  the  Pic- 
tured Bocks,  which  lie  on  the  mainland  opposite.  It 
bears  sugar-maple  in  profusion,  and  has  one  family 
(that  of  Mr.  Williams)  residing  upon  it ;  he  is  a  thrifty 
farmer  and  trader.  The  variegated  sandstone,  as  well 
as  I  could  determine,  here  plunges  to  the  west,  and 
passes  under  the  strata  which  compose  the  Pictured 
Rocks.  The  fomented  \){\  Houghton  regarded  the 
red  or  variegated  sandstone  of  Luke  Superior  as  old- 


298  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

cr  than  the  "  old  red  sandstone."  The  Pictured  Rock 
stratum  he  considered  the  equivalent  of  the  u  Potsdam 
sandstone"  of  the  New  York  Reports.  This  rock 
conies  to  the  shore,  about  twenty  miles  in  length,  and 
has  a  thickness  of  at  least  five  hundred  feet.  Grand 
Island  is  an  outlier  on  the  north. 

The  following  is  a  section  from  the  water's  edge 
upward,  taken  by  the  eye,  at  the  highest  point,  which, 
according  to  Captain  Bayfield,  is  300  feet. 

Geological  Section  of  the  Pictured  Rocks. 

THICKNESS. 

1st — Soft  conglomerate,          .         .         .       .  10  to  20  feet. 

1M     (  ompact  sandstone,    ...  00  to  80  " 

Sd — Gr:iy  s;m<l  rook  (soft  and  wearing),         .  30  to  50  M 

4th — Yellowish  green  sand  rock,  containing 

sulphur,  sand  easily  dissolved,           .         .  80  to  100  " 

5th — Soft  and  imperfectly  stratified  sand 
rock,   with  septaria    of    sandstone,   and 

ironstone,         .         .         .         .         '          .  20  to  50  " 

Gth — Drift  and  sand  to  surface,         .         .  10  to  50  " 

It  will  now  be  readily  seen  how  the  perpendicular 
faces  of  rock  are  caused,  which  have  given  this 
sage  such  a  frightful  aspect.  Vertical  walls  of  smooth 
gray  rock,  200  to  300  feet  high,  passing  to  unknown 
depths  beneath  the  surface  ;  in  places  worn  into  large 
caverns,  in  others,  colored  in  fantastic  yet  grim  fig- 
ures, half  real  and  half  imaginary,  yellow,  green,  and 
black;  shapes  neither  animal,  nor  in  the  likeness  of 
anything  else  that  is  natural,  but  so  near  the  natural 
as  to  give  rise  to  the  idea  of  monsters,  griffins,  and 
genii.  Such  are  the  Pictured  Rocks,  before  which 
the  Indian  thinks  of  his  Manitou,  and  the  Frenchman 
crosses  himself  with  profound    reverence. 

The  soft  conglomerate  (No.  1)  yields  to  the  in< 
Sani  wear    of    the  wave,  which,  rolling    in    from    deep 

water,  strikes  with  great  power.     When  the  under- 


TWO  MONTHS  IN  THE  COPPER  REGIONS.  299 

mining  process  has  extended  a  few  yards,  the  hard 
stratum  next  above  falls,  and  with  it  the  superincum- 
bent mass.  Much  of  this  dissolves  away  in  time,  leav- 
ing the  fragments  of  No.  2  visible  in  the  clear  water, 
in  great  blocks,  at  various  depths  beneath  the  surface. 
The  colors  are  furnished  by  the  dripping  solutions  of 
iron,  in  the  state  of  oxyde,  carbonate,  and  sulphate ; 
by  moss  growing  upon  the  face  of  the  rocks,  and  prob- 
ably by  the  green  carbonate  of  copper.  The  niches, 
caves,  and  angles,  follow  naturally  from  a  rock  of  dif- 
ferent degrees  of  hardness,  acted  upon  by  the  same 
disintegrating  force.  At  the  mouth  of  a  creek,  where 
the  trail  from  "Bay  De  Noquet"  (called  JBadenock), 
on  Lake  Michigan,  strikes  this  lake,  there  is  a  hard 
silicious  slate,  approaching  to  flint,  dark  in  color,  and 
imperfectly  stratified.  This  bed,  -which  appears  to  be 
limited,  lies  low,  near  the  water. 

Passing  these  dreaded  rocks,  the  principal  harbor 
of  Grand  Island  and  the  farm  of  Mr.  Williams  came 
in  view.  For  refuge  in  bad  weather,  this  island  must 
in  future  time  be  of  great  advantage  to  vessels.  It 
has  several  large  and  deep  harbors,  and  of  itself 
forms  a  good  lee,  in  almost  all  weather.  On  the  main- 
land, opposite  Mr.  Williams',  is  a  solitary  cabin,  the 
agency  of  the  American  Fur  Company. 

Between  Grand  Island  on  the  west,  and  the  shore 
at  Train  River  Point,  there  are  two  low  islands 
that  appear  to  be  formed  of  the  red  sandstone.  At 
the  point,  this  rock  forms  the  shore,  and  has  a  rapid 
dip  to  the  eastward,  say  150  feet  in  the  mile ;  evident- 
ly running  under  the  Pictured  Bocks,  and  therefore 
an  older  formation.  Here  it  enclosed  occasional  peb- 
bles of  quartz,  agates,  and  fine-grained  sandstone. 

The  wind  which  had  been  fair  all  day,  on  turning 
the  point  came  strong  ahead,  against  which  we  had 
hard  pulling  about  five  miles,  to   the  mouth  of  Train 


300  FUGITIVE    ESSAYS. 

River.  Our  craft  proved  to  be  a  fast  sailer,  easily 
beating  the  little  clinker  of  our  friends  before  the 
wind;  but  those  dauntless  fellows  did  not  rest  until, 
at  the  end  of  the  day,  they  drew  into  the  same  harbor 
with  us.  Train  River,  like  many  others,  has  deep 
water  inside,  but  only  a  few  inches  at  the  entrance. 
Wherever  wtc  set  foot  on  shore,  the  remains  of  previ- 
ous travellers  were  seen.  Here  tho  poles  of  many 
Indian  lodges  were  standing,  and  the  bones  of  a  bear 
lay  around,  indicative  of  a  feast.  There  were  also 
dwarf  cherries  and  whortleberries. 

Passing  out  of  the  bay  in  the  morning,  a  range  of 
mountains  was  visible,  the  ends  presenting  themselves 
near  at  hand,  and  the  principal  range  extending 
westward,  towards  Chocolate  River.  From  the  out- 
line I  conjecture  that  they  are  composed  of  primitive 
rocks.  At  the  shore  the  strata  are  still  the  variega- 
ted  sandstone,  very  much  tilted,  with  thin  beds  of 
shale  interstratified;  apparent  dip,  to  the  northward. 
Making  a  long  traverse  from  Train  River  Bay,  at  5 
P.  M.,  we  entered  a  magnificent  harbor  between  pro- 
jecting points  of  granite  rocks,  and  coasting  along  in- 
side  some  islands  soon  saw  that  there  was  a  very  safe 
and  spacious  shelter  for  shipping  still  further  inland, 
accessible  in  any  wind,  with  deep  and  quiet  water  in- 
side. This  bay  is  sometimes  called  Presque  Isle.  It 
commences  about  two  miles  north  of  the  mouth  of 
lk  Riviere  des  Morts,"  six  or  seven  miles  north-west 
of  Chocolate  River,  and  extends  to  Granite  Point. 

Mr.  Dorr  being  quite  ill,  our  party  remained  a 
da,y.  The  boat  anchored  in  a  quiet  nook  of  the  har- 
bor. (Iranite  rocks  were  projecting  on  all  sides, 
through  the  red  sandstone,  scorched  and  whitened  at 
the  points  of  contact.  In  the  rear  were  seen  rug 
mountains,  covered  with  evergreens.  This  was  re- 
garded as  the  commencement  of  the  copper  region. 


TWO  MONTHS  IN  THE  COPPER  REGIONS.  301 

Accordingly,  myself  and  Martin  sallied  forth  in  the 
morning  to  spy  out  the  mineral  wealth  of  the  spot. 
On  the  south  point  of  the  bay,  to  our  great  satisfac- 
tion, we  discovered  a  piece  of  green  carbonate,  about 
the  size  of  a  pea,  in  a  hard  green  stone-trap ;  but  a 
little  further  on  found,  also,  evidences  of  a  prior  occu- 
pation, in  a  log  cabin  covered  with  birch  bark,  a  small 
patch  of  chopped  land,  and  a  pen  made  of  poles, 
which  enclosed  two  or  three  hills  of  potatoes,  and 
some  stalks  of  green  peas.  Pursuing  our  way  along 
the  shore  to  Dead  Men's  River,  we  found  a  perma- 
nent fishing  establishment  and  two  comfortable  houses, 
now  deserted  and  locked  up. 

The  country  adjacent  for  two  or  three  miles  is 
low  and  swampy,  with  sand  ridges  between  the  swales, 
and  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  heaps  of  granite  rocks. 
It  was  soon  evident  that  the  surveyors  had  been  this 
way,  and  that  very  recently.  At  the  south  point  of 
the  bay  was  a  stake,  on  the  dividing  line  between  sec- 
tions Nos.  1  and  2,  town  48  north,  range  25  west ; 
showing  that  we  were  one  town,  or  six  miles,  north  of 
St.  Mary's,  and  twenty-five  towns,  or  150  miles  west. 

In  making  the  traverse  from  Train  River  Bay  to 
Presque  Isle  Bay,  a  singular  object  was  visible  to  the 
right,  long  before  the  shore  opposite  to  it  came  in 
sight.  Under  t%e  effect  of  refraction,  it  rose  and 
fell,  dilated  and  contracted,  changing  continually 
from  a  tall  spire  to  a  flat  belt  of  land.  By  the  glass, 
it  was  seen  to  be  almost  destitute  of  trees,  and  Mr. 
Bushnell  began  to  regard  it  as  one  of  the  peaks  of 
Point  Kewena.  There  is  no  map  of  this  lake  upon 
which  a  navigator  can  rely,  except  a  British  one  from 
the  survey  of  Captain  Bayfield  (Royal  Navy),  made 
about  twenty  years  ago.  We  had  what  purported  to 
be  a  copy,  but  soon  found  that  it  was  not  a  true  one. 
We  could  neither  recognize  from  it  the  harbor,  the 
26 


302  FUGITIVE    ESP  A  VS. 

points,  nor  the  rivers  where  we  were.  At  Chocolate 
River  the  coast,  from  a  westerly  course,  makes  almost 
a  right  angle  to  the  northward;  but  at  that  time 
whether  we  were  at  Chocolate  or  Dead  Men's  River 
we  could  not  tell. 

The  isolated  object  seen  in  the  north  proved  to  be 
the  u  Granite  Rock,"  situated  about  ten  miles  from 
shore,  fifty  to  eighty  feet  in  height,  and  a  few  acres  in 
extent.  Along  this  shore,  huge  masses  of  this  recent 
granite  rise  through  the  water,  and  may  be  seen  in  its 
clear  depths.  From  the  section  stake  just  mentioned 
the  Granite  Rock  bears  north  ten  or  twelve  miles  dis- 
tant. It  must  not  be  confounde'd  with  "  Stanard's 
Rock,"  which  is  in  the  track  of  vessels  from  Point 
Kewena  to  St.  Mary's,  thirty  miles  from  land.  That 
these  granite  rocks  are  more  recent  than  the  sedimen- 
tary sandstone  which  rests  upon  them  is  evident 
from  observation.  The  igneous  rocks  have  protruded 
through  the  sandstone,  distorting  and  breaking  up  the 
strata.  If  the  red  or  variegated  sandstone  had  been 
deposited  after  the  upheaval,  this  disturbance  would 
not  have  been  visible,  nor  would  there  have  been  seen 
the  discoloration  and  semi-vitrification  at  the  junction 
or  contact  of  the  two  formations. 

The  mountainous  country  which  here  comes  quite 
to  the  lake  extends,  in  east  and  west  ranges,  beyond 
the  sources  of  the  Huron  River  and  Kewena  Bay,  and 
appears  to  have  been  formed  by  the  same  volcanic  ef- 
fort. The  spacious  and  beautiful  harbor  where  we  lay 
is  formed  by  four  granitic  islands,  three  of  them  now 
connected  with  the  shore  by  sand  bars,  forming  as  ma- 
ny "  Presque  Isles." 

Our  next  day's  sail  ended  at  a  small  creek,  by  the 
royageuro  called  Cypress  River,  from  the  adjacent 
forest  of  cypress  timi-*  r,  as  it  is  called.  This  tree  is 
an  evergreen,  with  rough  hark  resembling  a  tamarack, 


TWO  MONTHS  IN  THE  COPPER  REGIONS.  303 

but  the  leaves  are  more  like  the  hemlock.  At  fifteen 
miles  from  Presque  Isle  Harbor  the  shore  made  again 
to  the  westward,  the  sandstone  bluff  being  more  ele- 
vated and  perpendicular  ;  its  strata  somewhat  rolling, 
but  the  general  dip  appeared  to  be  westward.  The 
face  of  the  rock  was  from  fifteen  to  eighty  feet  above 
the  water.  The  knobs  of  Point  Kewena  were  now 
distinctly  in  sight,  from  forty  to  fifty  miles  distant  in 
the  north.  Mr.  Dorr  being  quite  sick  with  a  bilious 
fever,  we  determined  to  make  a  long  traverse  on  the 
next  day,  across  the  bay  to  Traverse  Island,  and 
thence,  with  all  dispatch,  to  Copper  Harbor.  But  af- 
ter putting  out  in  the  face  of  a  stiff  breeze  early  in 
the  day,  we  found  it  impossible  to  weather  the  next 
point,  and  returned  to  camp. 

The  river,  called  the  St.  John's  by  us,  is  known  to 
the  French  as  the  "  Chien-Jaun,"  or  Yellow  Dog 
River,  corrupted  in  the  first  instance  to  "  Shanne- 
jone,"  and  thence  to  St.  John.  It  is  on  the  map  laid 
down  as  about  thirty  miles  long.  In  this  country  the 
word  creek  is  never  used,  but  the  French  term  "  riv- 
iere" is  applied  to  all  its  streams,  which  is  Anglicised 
river.  Being  now  wind-bound  for  the  day,  I  took 
our  trusty  and  intelligent  whaler,  Martin,  who  had 
nlready  shown  himself  a  good  woodsman,  as  well  as  a 
first-rate  sailor,  and  followed  the  creek  into  the  inte- 
rior. At  the  end  of  two  miles  of  still,  deep  water, 
our  canoe  was  obstructed  by  flood- wood,  and  at  three- 
fourths  of  a  mile  further,  by  a  fall  of  eight  or  ten 
feet  over  sand  rock. 

Above  the  fall  was  a  beautiful  lake,  overlooked 
by  granitic  mountains  on  the  west,  with  an  opening 
at  the  south.  This  led  us  to  a  second  lake,  and  this 
to  a  third — strictly  speaking  only  branches  of  the 
same  water — in  all  about  four  miles  long.  On  the 
cast  and  south  were  gentle  ridges,  sustaining  the  first 


304  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

valuable  pines  we  had  seen  ;  on  the  west,  lofty  hills. 
In  the  low  grounds,  at  the  water  level,  were  thousands 
of  large  white  cedars,  forming  a  perfect  abattis,  or 
barrier,  against  our  progress.  There  were  pheasants 
and  ducks  in  abundance,  red  squirrels,  and  whortle- 
berries. On  the  whole,  there  was  present  so  much 
of  the  New  England  scenery  and  productions  that  I 
have  written  on  my  sketch  of  these  ponds  the  name 
of  "New  England  Lake*." 

On  the  succeeding  day,  the  wind  being  still  adverse 
to  a  direct  passage  to  Copper  Harbor,  we  thought  only 
of  proceeding  along  the  coast  to  the  westward,  and 
reached  the  mouth  of  Huron  River  in  a  few  hours. 
The  health  of  our  invalid  having  improved,  we  hauled 
the  boat  over  the  sand-bar  at  the  mouth  of  this  river, 
and  finding  deep  and  wide  water,  ascended  about  two 
miles  and  encamped*  The  reports  of  other  exploring 
parties  were  highly  favorable  to  the  Huron  region,  as 
a  mineral  location,  but  after  expending  two  days  of 
rainy  weather,  in  the  mountains  between  the  Little  and 
the  Big  Huron,  and  finding  the  signs  of  valuable  cop- 
per not  promising,  we  set  forward  for  the  "Anse." 

During  our  stay  we  had  made  an  excursion  by 
water  into  a  bay  about  fifteen  miles  deep,  called  af- 
ter the  adjacent  islands  and  river,  Huron  Bay.  The 
shores  are  low,  and  the  extremity  or  head  swampy,  and 
filled  with  a  labyrinth  of  wet  islands,  covered  with  white 
cedar.  On  the  south,  the  Huron  range. overlooks  the 
bay,  at  a  height  of  500  to  GOO  feet.  This  iidct  is  in 
the  form  of  a  pocket  gathered  at  the  middle,  and  if 
necessary,  though  shallow,  would  accommodate  ft 
great  number  of  vessels.  When  we  were  fairly  at 
the  bottom  of  the  pocket,  the  wind  came  square  in, 

and  preventing  our  departure  that  night,  we  were  un- 
der the  necessity  of  encamping  without  blankets  in  a 

lodge  lately  occupied  by  the  surveyors. 


TWO  MONTHS  IN  THE  COPPER  REGIONS.  305 

A  lodge  is  a  temporary  habitation  erected  by  those 
who  have  no  tents,  to  be  occupied  for  the  night,  or 
for  some  days  if  the  weather  is  bad.  It  is  made  of 
evergreen  boughs,  pine,  hemlock,  or  balsam,  cut  short, 
the  frame-work  consists  of  two  crotches,  and  a  pole 
between  them.  On  the  side  towards  the  wind  poles 
are  laid  like  rafters,  one  end  on  the  ground,  the  other 
on  the  cross-pole  in  the  crotches.  On  these  the  small 
brush  is  laid  like  shingles,  beginning  at  the  ground, 
and  each  course  overlapping  the  last.  The  ends  are 
stopped  in  the  same  way,  and  the  fire  built  in  front. 
They  serve  to  keep  off  the  dew,  snow,  and  wind,  but 
are  of  little  avail  in  heavy  rains. 

The  promontory  between  Huron  Bay  and  Kewena 
Bay  is  called  "  Point  Obang,"  a  corruption  of  "  Point 
Abaye."  It  is  a  low,  flat  tract  of  land,  which  bears 
some  sugar-maple,  and  has  a  good  soil  capable  of  cul- 
tivation. The  range  line,  between  ranges  29  and  80 
west,  comes  to  the  lake  a  short  distance  west  of  the 
mouth  of  Huron  River.  The  north-west  corner  of 
section  18,  T.  52  N.,  R.  29  W.,  is  about  a  mile  from 
the  shore,  showing  a  progress  to  the  westward  of  St. 
Marie's  of  twenty-nine  towns,  and  to  the  northward 
five  towns. 

About  six  miles  from  the  shore  is  a  collection  of 
granitic  islands,  called  the  Huron  Islands,  inhabited 
by  rabbits  in  great  numbers.  Soon  after  casting  loose 
from  the  islands,  our  fitful  breeze  again  settled  in- 
to the  west,  compelling  us  to  land  and  anchor  the 
boat  in  an  open  roadstead,  where  she  tumbled  and 
pitched  all  night  and  all  the  next  day,  our  faithful 
whaler  sleeping  on  board.  In  the  evening  a  calm  en- 
abled us  to  work  with  oars,  and  to  reach  the  mission 
at  the  "  Anse  "  about  daybreak. 

This  term  is  the  French  for  a  small  bay,  and  is 
used  to  designate  the  place  as  well  as  the  head  or  ex- 
26* 


306  FUGITIVE     ESSAYS. 

tremity  of  Kewena  Bay.  Here  the  Abbe  Mcmard 
preached  to  the  Sioux,  in  1660,  and  impelled  by  the 
missionary  spirit  proceeded  towards  "  Chegoimegon," 
the  modern  La  Pointe.  He  is  said  to  have  perished 
in  the  wilds  of  Portage  Lake,  for  he  was  seen  no 
more. 

There  is  yet  a  Catholic  mission  on  the  north  side 
of  the  bay,  which,  with  its  collection  of  log  cabins, 
and  chapel,  presents  at  a  distance  a  very  pretty  view. 
On  the  south  side  is  the  Fur  Company's  agency,  now 
comparatively  desolate,  and  the  Methodist  mission  for 
the  Chippeways.  Dr.  Johnson,  the  carpenter,  and 
Mr.  Brock  way,  the  blacksmith  and  farmer  of  this  mis- 
sion, showed  our  party  great  kindness,  which  is  more 
to  be  considered,  when  it  is  known  that  the  spirit  of 
copper  speculation  had  attracted  many  people  to  the 
country,  all  of  whom  received  the  good  offices  of  the 
etsablishment. 

The  mission  farm  produces  good  grass,  very  heavy 
crops  of  potatoes  and  turnips,  good  oats,  barley,  and 
rye.  They  are  now  trying  the  wheat  crop,  with  little 
doubt  of  success. 

Those  who  have  spent  the  winter  here  do  not  com- 
plain of  its  severity,  although  snow  lies  from  one  to 
four  feet  deep,  from  December  till  May.  The  bay 
furnishes  inexhaustible  supplies  of  white  fish  that  are 
taken  almost  the  entire  year.  Every  night,  except 
Sunday,  the  water  is  dotted  with  the  canoes  of  the 
squaws  and  Indians,  planting  their  gill  nets;  and 
again  at  daylight  in  the  morning  these  female  fisher- 
men are  seen  overhauling  the  net  for  their  morning 
meal.  The  two  missions  appear  to  divide  the  band 
about  equally.  At  this  moment  the  principal  portion 
of  both  flocks  are  absent  at  La  Pointe,  receiving  their 
annuities,  each  under  the  watchful  care  of  their  res 
pective  pastors. 


TWO  MONTHS  IN  THE  COPPER  REGIONS.  307 

From  the  Anse  to  the  mouth  of  the  Ontonagon, 
direct  by  land,  is  a  very  practicable  route  for  a  road, 
the  distance  about  forty-five  miles.  It  is  from  this 
place,  also,  that  the  winter  trail  to  Greeen  Bay  leads 
off  to  the  southward,  and  which  must  always  be  the 
approach  from  the  States  by  land.  To  reach  the  On- 
tonagon by  water,  the  distance  is  about  160  miles, 
following  the  shore  around  point  Kewena.  But  about 
twelve  miles  from  the  Catholic  mission  there  is  a  riv- 
er, called  the  Portage  River,  that  communicates  with 
the  Portage  Lakes,  which  extend  across  the  base  of 
Point  Kewena,  to  within  one  mile  and  a  half  of  the 
northern  shore.  For  bark  canoes  and  light  craft  this 
portage  is  practicable,  and  is  usually  made.  About  six- 
ty miles  of  navigation  is  thus  avoided. 

Having  feasted  a  couple  of  days  upon  the  good 
things  of  the  Anse, — to  wit :  potatoes,  turnips,  sweet 
milk,  and  fresh  bread, — we  departed  for  Copper  Har- 
bor, and  arrived  there  in  two  days.  The  sand  rock 
of  the  south  shore  of  Kewena  Bay  continued  around 
on  the  northern  side  to  "  Bay  de  Gris."  A  little  be- 
yond this,  a  different  rock  made  its  appearance,  but 
probably  the  geological  equivalent  of  the  red  and  va- 
riegated sand  rock.  It  is  a  very  coarse  but  stratified 
conglomerate,  with  pebbles  of  agate,  quartz,  trap, 
amygdaloid  trap,  red  granite,  &c,  many  of  them  lar- 
ger than  a  man  could  lift.  It  is  raised  in  uplifts  cor- 
responding with  the  subordinate  trap,  and  contains 
fissures  like  the  trap,  which  are  filled  with  spar.  The 
general  course  of  the  uplifts  are  south-west  by  west, 
and  the  course  of  the  fissures  or  veins,  both  of  the 
trap  and  conglomerate,  is  nearly  at  right  angles  to 
the  face  of  the  uplifts.  It  is  in  these  veins  that  the 
native  copper  and  its  ores  are  found. 

The  line  of  greatest  elevation  runs  near  the  middle 
of  the  point,  forming  an  anticlinal  axis,  from  which  the 


308  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

rocks  pitch  each  "way,  at  various  angles,  from  twenty  to 
sixty  degrees.  But  it  must  not  be  supposed  that  the 
descent  is  regular  from  the  summit  towards  the  lake. 
Tn  the  volcanic  convulsions  that  generated  and  raised 
the  trap  rocks,  they  were  greatly  broken  and  frac- 
tured, and  consequently  the  overlying  rocks,  the  con- 
glomerate and  sandstones,  were  dislocated  in  the  same 
way.  They  now  lie  in  the  form  of  vast  steps,  the 
broken  faces  of  the  conglomerate  and  trap  nearly  per- 
pendicular, and  the  slopes  at  the  angles  above  stated. 
The  veins  of  the  stratified  and  the  unstratifkd  rocks  ap- 
pear to  be  of  the  same  age  ;  to  have  been  formed  by 
the  same  cause,  after  the  enclosing  rocks  had  taken 
the  form  and  position  they  now  have.  Upon  the 
manner  of  the  formation  <>?  these  veins  there  are 
various  conjectures,  which  I  have  not  space  to  notice. 
When  they  pass  from  the  conglomerate  to  the  harder 
and  more  compact  trap  rock,  they  are  said  to  dimin- 
ish in  width,  and  the  material  of  the  vein  changes. 
They  carry,  in  general,  beautiful  calcareous  spar,  and 
also  other  substances  besides  copper,  such  as  quartz 
and  barytes. 

From  the  Manitou  Islands,  at  the  extremity  of 
Point  Kewena,  to  the  Portage  Lakes,  the  most  elevated 
mountain  range,  or  rather  succession  of  knobs,  is 
nearer  to  the  north  than  the  south  shore,  and  from 
700  to  800  feet  in  height.  It  is  a  very  rough  region 
to  explore,  with  precipitous  rocks,  thick  cedar  swamps, 
and  tangled  evergreens  in  every  part.  But  Dr. 
Houghton,  with  five  companies  of  explorers  and  sur- 
veyors, has  subdivided  all  the  land  east  of  the  Port- 
age Lakes  into  sections  during  the  past  summer,  ex- 
cept one  fractional  township.  The  labor  and  ex j in- 
sure attending  this  work  cannot  be  understood  by  any 
except  these  who  hare  been  upon  the  ground  and 
its  mountains  and  swamps.     This  survey  was  under- 


TWO  MONTHS  IN  THE  COPPER  REGIONS.  309 

taken  to  demonstrate  the  practicability  and  value  of 
a  favorite  system  of  Dr.  Houghton's.  He  had,  as 
geologist  of  the  State  of  Michigan,  spent  several 
years  in  this  desert  region,  and  knew  its  mineral 
worth.  He  felt,  as  every  exploring  geologist  feels, 
the  necessity  of  exact  topographical  and  lineal  sur- 
veys, in  order  to  give  his  reports  that  character  of 
perfect  accuracy  of  which  the  science  is  capable.  In 
truth,  a  large  portion  of  the  results  of  mineral  explo- 
rations is  geographical,  topographical,  and  mathemati- 
cal matter.  The  thickness,  extent,  and  dip  of  rocks, 
when  found,  constitute  a  perfect  measurement  of  the 
country.  Dr.  Houghton  contracted  with  the  Govern- 
ment to  make  the  lineal  survey  of  this  region,  and  at 
the  same  time  a  geological  one  ;  and  laboring  upon  it 
as  the  great  undertaking  of  his  life,  had,  as  1  have  re- 
marked, nearly  completed  the  most  difficult  portion  — 
that  of  Point  Kewena.  His  melancholy  fate  is  well 
known. 

By  these  surveys,  Fort  Wilkins  and  Copper  Har- 
bor are  situated  near  the  south-west  corner  of  town 
59  north,  range  28  ivest,  or  twelve  towns  north,  and 
twenty-eight  west  of  St.  Mary's. 

The  returns  of  the  Government  surveys  of  this 
region  will  not  only  show  the  coast  and  water-courses 
in  connection  with  town  and  section  lines,  but  will 
give  the  elevation  and  depression  (what  public  surveys 
hitherto  have  not)  of  the  country,  taken  at  every 
change,  by  the  barometer.  They  will  further  exhibit 
the  exact  limit  and  character  of  the  mineral  region. 
Such  a  system  introduced  into  all  the  public  surveys, 
with  modifications  suitable  to  the  agricultural  districts, 
such  as  the  analysis  of  soils,  collection  of  plants  and 
marl 3,  would  be  of  immense  advantage  to  the  settler, 
and  honorable  to  the  nation. 

The  maps  and  papers  of  the  mineral  agency  at 


310  FUGITIVE   E88AYS. 

Porter's  Island,  in  Copper  Harbor,  showed  about 
500  locations  of  one  mile  square  each.  The  War 
Department  has,  by  usage,  the  control  of  the  mineral 
lands  of  the  United  States.  It  is  doubtful  whether 
there  is  any  law  that  covers  the  case  of  the  copper 
mines  of  Lake  Superior.  The  President  has,  however, 
reposed  the  power  of  leasing  these  and  other  mineral 
lands  in  the  War  Department,  which  confines  their 
management  to  the  Bureau  of  Ordnance,  which  acts 
by  local  agents.  The  Secretary  of  War,  or  the  local 
agents,  grant  permits  of  search  and  location,  and  the 
location  being  made,  a  lease  is  granted  to  the  locator. 
In  this  lease  there  are  covenants  to  render  the  Gov- 
ernment six  per  cent,  of  the  mineral  raised  for  three 
years,  and  after  that  time  the  Government  have  pow- 
er to  require  ten  per  cent,  for  the  next  six  years. 

At  first  the  permits  included  three  miles  square, 
or  nine  square  miles,  but  were  early  last  spring  re- 
duced to  one  square  mile,  and  given  upon  every  appli- 
cation, without  fees.  About  seventy  permits  were 
now  laid  in  the  neighborhood  of  Dead  Men's  River, 
and  eight  or  ten  about  the  mouth  of  Huron  River. 
The  Point  Kewena  .proper,  that  is  to  say,  that  portion 
east  of  the  Portage  Lakes,  was  mostly  covered,  and 
various  other  large  tracts  on  the  waters  of  Elm  River, 
the  Ontonagon,  Iron  River,  Montreal,  and  even  on 
the  Brule,  beyond  La  Pointe. 

In  order  therefore  to  locate  our  permits,  it  became 
necessary  to  go  westward  and  explore  some  of  the  va- 
cant regions  beyond  the  Portage  Lakes.  We  there- 
fore left  Copper  Harbor,  touching  at  Agate  Harbor, 
Ka^le  Harbor,  and  Eagle  River,  and  proceeded  to  the 
mouth  of  Salmon  Trout  River,  in  township  55  north, 
range  85  west. 

Mr.  Bushnell  and  myself,  and  two  men,  here  i 
to  the  woods,  and  striking  the  range  line  between  84 


TWO  MONTHS  IN  THE  COPPER  REGIONS.  311 

and  35,  followed  it  south  to  the  south-east  comer  of 
township  53  north,  range  35  west,  being  about  seven- 
teen miles  interior.  To  our  surprise  instead  of  find- 
ing a  rugged  mineral  region,  we  had  passed  through  a 
handsome  rolling  country,  tolerably  well  watered, 
with  a  good  loamy  soil,  producing  an  abundance  of 
sugar-maple.  Along  the  margin  of  the  lake,  owing 
probably  to  the  harsh  and  moist  winds  from  the  water, 
nothing  but  birch,  balsam,  pine,  hemlock,  spruce,  and 
white  cedar  is  seen ;  but  at  the  distance  of  two  to  five 
miles  interior  the  forest  growth  changes  entirely. 
There  is  an  occasional  white  pine,  with  a  lofty,  straight 
and  majestic  trunk,  some  scattering  elms,  linns,  and 
black  oaks,  but  the  reigning  tree  is  the  sugar-maple. 

On  our  left  lay  the  valley  of  the  Portage  Lakes  and 
of  Sturgeon  River,  which  we  had  just  crossed.  Turning 
westward  we  soon  encountered  one  of  those  eye-sores 
to  the  explorer  and  surveyor,  a  cedar  swamp,  in  which 
a  progress  of  a  mile  an  hour  is  considered  rapid  trav- 
elling. The  white  cedar  lives  to  a  great  age  before  it 
begins  to  decline.  It  finally  rots  at  the  root,  and  is 
blown  down  by  the  northern  tempest.  But  this  is  by 
no  means  its  end  ;  its  prostrate  trunk  sends  up  live 
branches,  that  draw  sustenance  through  the  roots  of 
the  parent,  or  new  prongs  sent  by  itself  below,  among 
the  buried  trunks  of  preceding  centuries.  In  after 
ages,  when  it  has  at  length  matured,  and  weakened 
by  time  has  yielded  to  the  winds,  another  sprout  from 
its  side  keeps  the  family  stock  in  perpetual  being. 
Beneath  the  accumulated  bodies  of  these  trees,  some 
dead  and  some  living,  the  water,  in  which  they  delight, 
stands  the  year  through,  flowing  gradually  towards 
some  stream  of  the  vicinity.  What  is  remarkable, 
the  water  of  these  swamps,  so  little  and  slow  is  the 
decay  of  the  cedar  tree,  is  clear,  pure,  and  cool. 

I  hope  I  have  been  able  to  convey  to  the  reader 


312  FUGITIVE    ESSAYS. 

a  just  idea  of  a  white  cedar  swamp,  because  without 
a  correct  conception  of  this,  he  will  never  be  able  to 
realize  the  great  difficulty  of  travelling  in  this  new 
country.  After  he  has  penetrated  one  of  them  forty 
rods,  the  view  is  equally  extensive  in  every  direction, 
whether  it  is  only  forty  rods  to  the  other  side,  or 
whether  it  is  two  miles.  In  addition  to  the  net-work 
of  logs,  and  the  thicket  of  leaves  that  never  fall,  it 
is  necessary  to  think  of  numberless  dry,  sharp,  and 
stiff  prongs,  the  imperishable  arms  and  limbs  of  dead 
and  fallen  trees.  It  is  then  to  be  remembered  that 
every  man  carries  more  or  less  of  a  load  upon  his 
back;  his  blanket,  his  tin  cup,  probably  some  imple 
ment,  a  hatchet  or  a  hammer,  with  specimens,  and  a 
few  pounds  of  provisions. 

The  second  night  found  us  advanced  about  one 
mile  into  a  noble  cedar  swamp.  Climbing  a  tree  ex- 
tended somewhat  the  range  of  the  eye,  but  it  met  only 
the  sombre  and  half  naked  trunks  of  the  white  cedar, 
in  every  direction.  A  camp-bed  was  formed  beneath 
a  tall  and  beautiful  larch,  or  tamarack,  and  a  fire 
made  at  its  root.  The  bed  was  made  as  usual  of 
branches,  kept  out  of  the  water  in  this  instance  by 
brush  and  poles.  This  white  cedar  has  the  merit  of 
burning  readily,  as  well  as  of  durability,  and  made 
to-night  a  bright  fire,  flaming  gaily  upwards  again*! 
the  straight  and  stately  larch.  When  had  such  an  il- 
lumination shone  there  before?  The  owl  gave  utter- 
ance to  his  surprise  in  hideous  screams,  and  ho 
for  his  mate.  The  larch,  as  it  swayed  to  and  fro  in 
the  night  breeze,  seemed  to  creak  and  groan  because 
of  the  lire,  which  was  scorching  its  sinews  and  boiling 
its  life-blood  in  its  veins.  No  doubt  before  man  v 
sons  pass  by  he  will  sicken  and  die,  and  from  a  tall 
prince  overlooking  the  humble  cedars,  will  OOme  h< 
l\  down,  perhaps  in  the  stillness  of  night,  and  lay  his 
body  along  side  of  theirs. 


TWO  MONTHS  IN  THE  COPPER  REGIONS.  313 

In  the  morning,  after  passing  a  cold  and  comfort- 
less night,  a  few  minutes  travel  cleared  the  swamp, 
and  rising  some  very  high  land  we  found  the  stratified 
sandstone  again,  and  inclined  towards  the  lake. 

At  the  south-east  coner  of  township  53  north, 
range  36  west,  the  trap-ranges  again  made  their  ap- 
pearance, from  whose  summits  the  mountains  of  the 
Huron  River  were  visible  in  the  south  beyond  the 
Anse. 

We  were  now  on  the  head  waters  of  Elm  River, 
on  ground  located  for  many  miles  around.  Most  of 
them  are  what  are  called  office  locations,  made  with- 
out visiting  the  spot,  and  in  consequence  of  some  lo- 
cations made  by  Mr.  Kenzie,  of  Chicago,  from  actual 
observation,  of  which  favorable  reports  were  in  cir- 
culation. 

That  night  we  should  have  met  two  of  our  men  at 
a  rendezvous  with  supplies ;  but  neither  party  had 
sought  the  right  spot,  so  indefinite  were  the  descrip- 
tions given  us  of  localities.  As  it  was  some  miles 
from  the  coast  to  the  mineral  ranges,  the  boat  passed 
slowly  along  the  shore,  sending  out  provisions  from 
time  to  time  to  the  exploring  party.  It  was  not  then 
known  how  far  west  the  township  lines  were»surveycd, 
consequently  the  points  of  meeting  were  fixed  at  the 
forks  of  some  stream,  or  some  old  camp,  and  in  find- 
ing these  many  errors  might  be  committed.  In  this 
case  a  day  was  consumed  in  uniting  the  two  parties, 
which  would  not  have  been  of  so  much  consequence, 
had  not  the  stock  of  eatables  began  to  fail.  But  most 
of  the  disagreeable  effects  of  a  short  allowance  were 
avoided  by  the  capture  of  a  porcupine,  of  which  we 
made  by  long  boiling  in  the  camp-kettle,  a  very  pala- 
table soup. 

On  the  20th  of  September,  at  a  distance  of  twen- 
ty miles  from  the  coast,  there  were  a  few  flakes  of 


iU4  FUGITIVE    ESSAYS. 

snow,  succeeding  a  cold  rain.  On  the  21st  and  22d, 
rain.  The  ground  passed  over  during  this  week  is 
drained  by  the  Salmon  Trout  River  (a  creek),  Elm 
River,  Misery  River,  Sturgeon  and  Flint  Steel  Rivers. 
Every  member  of  the  party  was  delighted  with  its  soil, 
its  beautiful  and  heavy  timber,  and  the  unsurpassed 
purity,  plenty,  and  coldness  of  its  waters.  We  pass- 
ed several  small  clear  lakes,  the  sources  of  many 
streams.  These  streams  are  in  general  but  few  miles 
in  length,  enlarging  very  fast  as  you  follow  them 
downward  from  the  head,  alive  with  the  famous  speck- 
led trout,  rapid  in  their  descent,  and  so  uniform  in 
the  flow  of  water,  that  water  power  is  everywhere 
abundant  Many  a  time  did  Patrick  and  Charley 
select  their  future  farms  on  the  border  of  some  quiet 
pool,  from  which  a  tumbling  brook  issued,  bearing  its 
faithful  tribute  into  the  reservoir  of  the  Father  of 
Lakes. 

The  cedar  swamps  so  hateful  to  the  explorer  will 
be  necessary  to  the  farmer  for  his  supply  of  rails: 
the  tall  round  pines  scattered  here  and  there  among 
the  sugar  trees,  now  so  green  and  majestic,  will  sup- 
ply him  with  lumber;  the  straight  and  beautiful  bal- 
sam with  timber. 

Hitherto  the  mineral  trap  rocks  that  rise  occasion- 
ally through  the  sandstone  Btratum,  do  not  greatly 
interfere  with  the  use  of  the  land  for  tillage.  This 
rock,  when  fully  disintegrated,  gives  a  li^lit  soil  that 
produces  well.  In  this  vicinity  the  trap  rises  sudden- 
ly out  of  the  plain  land,  sometimes  with  one  perpen- 
dicular face  and  one  ffenile  slope,  sometimes  like  an 
island  with  a  bluff  all  around,  and  flat,  rich  land  on 
the  top,  and  sometimes  in  irregular  peaks,  standing 
among  the  timber  like  cones  and  pyramids.  At  the 
sources  of  Flint  Steel  River  we  saw,  interspersed  with 
protruding  Bummits  of  trap,  peaks  of  conglomerate, 


TWO  MONTHS  IN  THE  COPPER  REGIONS.  315 

shooting  up  from  flat  land  to  the  height  of  fifty,  sev- 
enty, and  one  hundred  feet. 

Pursuing  a  south-westerly  course,  about  noon  on 
the  26th  we  entered  the  ravines  that  lead  into  the 
Ontonagon.  From  Elm  River  to  the  Ontonagon,  the 
sand  rock  is  covered  from  ten  to  four  hundred  feet  in 
depth  with  a  stratified  deposite  of  red  clay  and  sand, 
very  fine.  It  is  commonly  called  clay,  but  contains 
more  silex  than  alumine,  though  it  is  so  minutely  di- 
vided as  to  have  the  appearance  of  clay.  I  saw  no- 
where true  clay  beds,  but  it  is  possible  some  of  this 
deposite  will  harden  in  the  fire  so  as  to  make  bricks. 

This  great  sand-bed  is  easily  washed  out  by  run- 
ning water.  From  the  Falls,  the  Ontonagon  has  hol- 
lowed out  for  itself  a  channel  300  to  400  feet  deep, 
and  from  half  a  mile  to  two  miles  wide.  The  late- 
ral gullies  are  very  numerous,  deep,  and  steep.  Eve- 
ry permanent  rill,  operating  for  ages,  has  excavated  a 
narrow  trough,  the  bottom  of  which  descends  towards 
the  river,  in  the  inverse  proportion  to  its  length,  and 
the  sides  remain  as  nearly  a  perpendicular  as  the  earth 
will  lie.  The  low  grounds  not  so  wet  as  to  cause  cy- 
press and  cedar  swamps,  are  everywhere  inclined  to 
produce  hemlock  and  balsam.  It  is  the  same  in  the 
ravines,  cold,  moisture,  and  a  confined  atmosphere, 
causing  the  growth  of  evergreens,  and  also  of  cedars. 

It  will  now  be  easy  to  judge  of  the  facilities  of 
travelling  in  the  region  of  trie  gullies.  To  cross 
them,  rising  one  slippery  face  and  sliding  down  the 
next,  is  very  exhausting  to  men  loaded  with  packs. 
To  follow  down  one  of  the  ravines,  so  narrow,  deep, 
and  shaded,  as  almost  to  exclude  the  sun  at  noon,  is 
much  like  the  change  "  from  the  frying-pan  into  the 
fire."  The  timber  of  the  sides  has  fallen  inward, 
into  and  across  the  contracted  pathway  of  the  rivulet, 
so  thick  and  so  much  entangled,  that  the  mind  is  in  a 


316  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

constant  state  of  exercise,  determining  whether  it  is 
easier  to  crawl  under,  or  climb  over  the  next  log. 

In  such  regions,  as  you  approach  the  common 
discharge  of  all  these  ravines,  as  a  creek,  a  lake,  orr 
as  in  this  case,  a  river,  the  number  of  lateral  gullies 
diminish,  and  it  is  sometimes  preferable  to  take  the 
crest  of  the  gulf  and  follow  it  towards  the  mouth. 
We  did  so,  and  coming  along  a  narrow  backbone, 
scarcely  wide  enough  for  two  to  walk  abreast,  sud- 
denly came  to  its  termination,  frith  the  river  far  be- 
low us.  It  was  noon  of  a  lovely  day,  such  as  are 
called  the  Indian  summer.  In  the  distance  to  the 
north,  twelve  or  fifteen  miles,  a  thick  haze  covered  the 
lake  ;  the  sides  and  bottom  of  the  valley  of  the  On- 
tonagon were  brilliant  in  the  mellow  sunlight,  mot- 
tled with  yellow  and  green ;  the  golden  tops  of  the 
sugar  tree  mingled  with  the  dark  summits  of  the  pine 
and  the  balsam.  The  rough  gorges  that  enter  the 
valley  on  both  sides  were  now  concealed  by  the  dense 
foliage  of  the  trees,  partly  gorgeous  and  partly  som- 
bre, made  yet  richer  by  the  contrast,  so  that  the  sur- 
face of  the  wood  as  seen  from  our  elevation,  in  fact 
from  the  waving  top  of  a  trim  balsam  which  I  had 
ascended,  lay  like  a  beautifully  worked  and  colored 
carpet  ready  for  our  feet. 

On  this  promontory,  jutting  into  the  valley,  we 
kindled  a  fire  in  the  dry  and  hollow  trunk  of  a  hem- 
lock, as  a  beacon  to  our  companions,  who  were  to  be 
at  the  foot  of  the  rapids  with  the  boat. 

On  the  left  or  inland  side  the  valley  at  some  miles 
distant  is  seen  to  divide,  corresponding  with  the  two 
branches  of  the  river.  In  this  direction  are  elevated 
peaks,  several  hundred  feet  higher  than  our  position, 
but  partly  hid  in  the  mist  of  the  atmosphere.  We 
had  now  spent  as  much  time  in  scene-gaziag  as  was 
profitable,  and  taking  up  our  packs  tumbled  down  the 


tWO  MONTHS  IN  THE  COPPER  REGIONS.  317 

bluff  to  the  river.  There  stood  the  tents,  and  there 
lay  the  boat,  with  our  comrades  lounging  about  in  the 
sun.  The  meeting  brought  forth  three  hearty  shouts 
all  around,  and  such  congratulations  of  genuine  good- 
will, as  none  but  woodsmen  and  sailors  know. 

We  were  now  at  the  foot  of  the  rapids,  one  mile 
north  of  the  correction  base,  which  is  also  the  line 
between  towns  50  and  51  north,  and  one  mile  east  of 
the  range  line  between  ranges  39  and  40  west. 

On  the  next  day,  after  washing,  drying,  and  mend- 
ing some  of  the  most  needed  garments,  Patrick,  our 
faithful  Irishman,  and  myself,  crossed  the  river  and 
went  west  along  the  correction  line.  This  course  car- 
ried us  constantly  nearer  the  lake,  because  the  direction 
of  the  shore  is  south  of  west.  The  timber  was,  as  might 
have  been  expected  on  approaching  the  lake,  more 
hemlock,  birch,  and  balsam,  but  the  soil  appeared  as 
good  as  that  we  had  passed  over  from  Salmon  Trout 
River  in  range  35  west.  In  range  41  west,  we  turn- 
ed to  the  left,  and  soon  found  that  no  surveys  had 
been  i»ade  south  of  the  correction  line.  The  same 
day  a  rain  set  in  that  lasted  with  little  intermission 
four  days  and  five  nights.  In  the  J;rap  region,  the 
magnetic  needle  is  subject  to  great  fluctuations.  When 
the  sky  is  overcast,  as  it  was  in  this  case  from  morn- 
ing to  night,  the  sun,  the  principal  guide,  is  of  course 
lost.  If  the  traveller  loses  his  confidence  in  the  com- 
pass, that  instrument  is  the  same  as  lost,  and  he  is 
compelled  to  rely  upon  judgment,  or  rather  the  woods- 
man's instinct.  This  judgment  is  sometimes  a  very 
uncertain  reliance.  The  streams  and  ridges  of  land 
are  so  irregular  that  little  information  can  be  drawn 
from  them. 

There  is  a  great  difference  in  persons  in  the  ac- 
curacy of  their  calculations,  guided  by  the  "  make  of 
the  country,"  as  its  general  topography  is  called. 
27* 


318  FUGITIVE  tiEf&AYB 

In  this  region,  none  but  the  oldest  hunters  and  trap- 
pers feel  safe  when  the  compass  begins  to  play  false 
and  the  sun  withdraws  himself*  If  the  consumption 
of  provisions  could  cease  for  the  time,  it  would  always 
be  safer  and  wiser  to  stop  and  encamp  until  clear 
weather  comes,  but  the  appetite  does  not  seem  to 
know  that  circumstances  alter  cases.  With  the  mind 
in  a  state  of  perplexity,  the  fatigue  of  travelling  is- 
greater  than  usual,  and  excessive  fatigue  in  turn 
weakens  not  only  the  power  of  exertion,  but  of  reso- 
lution also.  The  wanderer  is  finally  overtaken  with 
an  indescribable  sensation — one  that  must  be  experi- 
enced to  be  understood — that  of  lostnes&.  At  a  mo- 
ment when  all  his  faculties,  instincts,  and  perceptions 
are  in  full  demand,  he  finds  them  all  confused,  irregu- 
lar, and  weak.  When  every  physical  power  is  required 
to  carry  him  forward,  his  limbs  seem  to  be  yield- 
ing to  the  disorder  of  his  mind ;  he  is  filled  with  an 
impressive  sense  of  his  inefficiency,  with  an  indefinite 
idea  of  alarm,  apprehension,  and  dismay ;  he  reasons, 
but  trusts  to  no  conclusion;  he  decides  upon  the  pre- 
ponderance of  reason  and  fact  as  he  supposes,  and  is 
sure  to  decide  wrong.  If  he  stumbles  into  a  trail  he 
has  passed  before,  or  even  passed  within  a  few  hours, 
he  does  not  recognize  it,  or  if  he  should  at  last,  and 
conclude  to  follow  it,  a  fatal  lunacy  impels  him  to 
take  the  wrong  end.  His  own  tracks  are  the  prints 
of  the  feet  of  some  other  man,  and  if  the  sun  should 
at  last  penetrate  the  fogs  and  clouds  that  envelop  his 
path,  the  world  seems  for  a  time  to  be  turned  end  for 
end ;  the  sun  is  out  of  place — perhaps  it  is  to  his  ad- 
dled brain,  far  in  the  north,  coursing  around  to  the 
south,  or  in  the  west  moving  towards  the  east.  At 
length,  like  a  dream,  the  delusion  wears  away,  objects 
put  on  their  natural  dress,  the  sun  takes  up  its  usual 
track,  streams  run  toward*  their  mouths,  the  eom] 


TWO  MONTHS  IN  THE  COPPER  REGIONS.  319 

points  to  the  northward  ;  dejection  and  weakness  give 
place  to  confidence  and  elasticity  of  mind. 

I  have  twice  experienced  what  I.  have  here  at- 
tempted to  describe.  It  is  a  species  of  delirium.  It 
oppresses  and  injures  every  faculty,  like  any  other 
intense  and  overwhelming  action.  The  greatest  pos- 
sible care  should  be  taken  to  prevent  the  occasion  for 
its  return.  Two  men,  last  summer,  were  exploring 
on  Elm  River,  and  without  compass  or  food  started 
for  a  vein  a  few  rods  from  camp.  They  got  en- 
tangled among  swamps  and  hills,  and  wandered  forty- 
eight  hours  in  the  woods,  bewildered  and  lost.  By 
accident  they  struck  the  lake  shore,  and  their  senses 
returned.  It  is  not  prudent  to  be  a  moment  without 
the  means  of  striking  a  fire,  without  food  for  a  day  or 
two,  and  a  plenty  of  clothing,  or  without  a  compass. 
Martin  and  myself  went  out  in  the  morning  from  Sal- 
mon Trout  River,  intending  to  go  three  miles  and  re- 
turn. He  had  neither  coat,  nor  vest,  nor  stockings, 
because  the  weather  was  mild.  A  rain  soon  came  on, 
and  a  thick  mist ;  steering  for  the  camp,  we  struck 
the  creek  two  miles  above  the  mouth  and  the  camp. 
The  ground  in  the  vicinity  of  the  lake  has  a  low  ever- 
green bush,  with  a  leaf  like  the.  hemlock,  which  lies 
fiat  on  the  surface,  entangling  the  feet  at  every  step. 
It  was  dark  when  we  struck  the  creek,  and  began  to 
follow  it  down  stream.  The  sloughs,  logs,  ground 
hemlock,  and  cedar  brush  were  so  bad,  that  it  would 
have  been  difficult  to  make  much  progress  in  daylight, 
and  it  was  now  pitch  dark.  We  took  to  the  water- 
course to  avoid  the  brush  and  bluffs  of  either  bank, 
and  waded  along  the  channel.  But  the  waters  of 
these  streams  are  always  cold,  and  Martin,  though  a 
stout  fellow,  and  full  of  resolution,  began  to  be  numb 
with  cold  and  wet.  We  had  nothing  to  eat,  our  match- 
es were  wet,  the  gun  could  not  be  fired  oft*.     There 


320  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

was  but  one  course  to  pursue.  The  stream  would 
take  us  to  camp,  but  how  far  distant  that  desirable 
spot  lay  we  could  not  conjecture.  But  the  chilly  wa- 
ter must  be  avoided,  and  the  brush  and  logs,  wet,  slip- 
pery, and  numberless  as  they  were,  must  be  surmount- 
ed. '*  We  have  crossed  that  log  before,"  says  Martin. 
"  What,  are  we  lost  ?  impossible  ;  we  have  not  left  the 
stream  a  moment — it  cannot  be."  Crooked  and  wind- 
ing as  it  was,  it  is  not  possible  that  we  should  travel 
twice  over  the  same  ground.  But  there  was  the  log, 
to  all  appearance  the  same  we  had  crossed  half  an 
hour  before.  Both  of  us  would  swear  to  the  identity 
of  the  log — the  same  timber,  the  same  size,  the  same 
splinters  at  the  root,  the  bark  off  in  the  same  way  ; 
and  still  it  was  more  probable  that  two  such  logs 
should  be  found,  than  that  we  had  passed  twice  over 
the  same  spot. 

We  crawled  onward,  filled  with  the  mystery  —  and 
it  is  not  to  this  hour  anything  else  than  a  mystery. 
In  about  two  hours  my  companion  gave  an  exclama- 
tion of  hope  and  joy.  He  had  been  up  the  creek  the 
day  before  shooting  ducks  and  fishing  for  trout.  He 
recognized  the  spot  where  the  canoe  was  obstructed 
by  flood-wood,  half  ajnile  from  the  tents.  We  now 
knew  where  there  was  a  trail,  and  in  a  few  minutes 
beheld  the  sparks  of  the  camp-fire  ascending  gaily 
among  the  trees. 

With  fire  works  better  secured,  with  more  attention 
to  clothing  on  the  part  of  Martin,  and  to  blankets  by 
both  of  us,  especially  with  ordinary  prudence  in  re- 
gard to  provisions,  the  discomfort  and  exertion,  the 
bruises,  chills,  and  exhaustion  of  this  day,  so  injurious 
to  the  constitution,  whether  felt  immediately  or  not, 
might  have  been  entirely  avoided.  It  maybe  thought 
that  such  vexations  might  be  prevented  by  a  rational 
foresight,  and  this  is  no  doubt  true  ;  but  in  practice 


TWO  MONTHS  IN  THE  COPPER  REGIONS  321 

they  occur  frequently  to  woodsmen,  and  they  are  in 
general  as  keen  in  the  examination  of  chances  as  any 
class  of  men.  Even  Indians  and  Indian  guides  be- 
come bewildered,  miscalculate  their  position,  make 
false  reckoning  of  distances,  lose  courage,  and  aban- 
don themselves  to  despair  and  to  tears. 

The  maps  for  the  copper  region,  instead  of  assist- 
ing the  explorer,  were  for  the  interior  so  erroneous  — 
a  fault  worse  than  deficiency  —  that  mistakes  equal  to 
a  day's  travel  frequently  resulted  from  a  reliance  up- 
on them. 

On  the  office  map  there  was  noted  a  lake,  not  far 
above  the  forks  of  the  Ontonagon,  on  the  west  fork. 
Leaving  the  "  correction  base  "  at  the  south-west  cor- 
ner of  town  51  N.,  range  40  W.,  we  should  have 
struck  that  lake  in  the  distance  of  ten  miles  ;  but  in- 
stead of  a  lake,  found  ourselves  involved  in  the  marshes 
at  the  sources  of  the  Cranberry  and  Iron  Rivers,  the 
lake  itself  being  about  fifteen  miles  distant.  The  forks 
of  the  Ontonagon  appeared  from  the  map,  and  the  best 
information  within  reach,  to  be  about  four  miles  by 
river  above  the  foot  of  the  rapids.  This  was  made  a 
point  in  our  return,  to  which  a  packer  was  sent 
with  pork  and  beans.  Instead  of  making  the  ren- 
dezvous in  one  day's  travel,  as  was  expected,  he  re- 
ports the  distance  at  fifteen  miles  by  river,  and  seven 
or  eight  in  a  direct  line.  The  delay  occasioned  by 
bad  weather  and  mistakes  amounted  on  our  part  to 
two  days  ;  the  packer,  who  had  at  last  reached  the 
forks,  after  spending  two  nights  in  a  cold  rain,  with- 
out fire,  had  left,  and  carried  back  his  provisions. 
Patrick  had,  by  mistake,  taken  salt  pork  for  three 
men  instead  of  two.  When  we  arrived  at  the  Forks, 
only  one  meal  of  bread  and  beans  remained,  with  a 
little  tea  and  sugar;  but  the  pork  was  sufficient  for 
,vo  days  more.     It  was  necessary  to  alter  our  route, 


322  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

and  employ  those  two  days  in  reaching  the  agency  at 
the  mouth  of  the  river.  This  is  an  instance  of  haz- 
ard and  disappointment,  and  it  is  difficult  to  see  how 
it  could  have  been  avoided.  With  the  greatest  saga- 
city and  forethought,  small  parties,  who  do  not  survey 
and  mark  their  courses  and  distances,  cannot  avoid 
occasional  perils. 

The  circumstances  in  which  we  were  placed  did 
not  allow  of  as  much  observation  upon  that  interest- 
ing region,  the  Falls  of  the  Ontonagon,  as  I  desired. 
The  greatest  fall  is  on  the  west  branch,  and  occupies 
a  distance  of  at  least  two  miles,  with  a  descent  of 
about  eighty  feet.  It  was  at  the  head  of  this  succes- 
sion of  cataracts,  that  the  "  Copper  Rock"  was  found, 
which  is  now  at  Washington  City.  It  lay,  when  first 
discovered,  on  the  brink  of  the  river,  in  the  red  clay 
deposite,  of  which  I  have  spoken,  although  mountains 
of  trap,  sandstone,  and  conglomerate  rise  on  all  sides. 
The  rock  was  removed  from  its  place  upon  a  tempora- 
ry railway,  constructed  through  the  woods  about  four 
miles,  to  a  point  on  the  river  where  it  could  be  float- 
ed. This  road  crossed  deep  ravines,  and  a  steep 
mountain  300  feet  high.  The  rock  was  hauled  along 
on  a  car,  and  up  the  mountain  by  a  capstan  and  ropes. 
Its  weight  is  a  little  over  3,000  pounds. 

It  is  now  eighty  years  since  this  copper  rock  ob- 
tained notoriety  among  white  men.  Mr.  Ah'j-amfrr 
Henry,  an  adventurous  Englishman  and  an  Agreeable 
writer,  who  entered  the  Indian  country  immediately 
after  the  peace  of  1763,  gives  a  description  of  the 
rock  which  is  worthy  of  being  repeated. 

"On  the  19th  of  August  (1765)  we  readied  the 
mouth  of  the  River  Ontonagon,  one  of  the  largest  on 
the  south  side  of  the  lake.  At  the  month  was  an  In- 
dian village,  and  at  three  leagues  above  a  fall,  at  the 
fool  of  which  sturgeon  were  at  this   season    BO  ahund- 


TWO  MONTHS  IN  THE  COPPER  REGIONS.  323 

ant,  that  a  month's  subsistence  for  a  regiment  could 
have  been  taken  in  a  few  hours.  But  I  found  this 
river  chiefly  remarkable  for  the  abundance  of  virgin 
copper,  which  is  on  its  banks  and  in  its  neighborhood, 
and  of  which  the  reputation  is  at  present  (1809)  more 
generally  spread  than  it  was  at  the  time  of  this,  my 
first  visit.  The  copper  presented  itself  to  the  eye  in 
masses  of  various  weight.  The  Indians  showed  me 
one  of  twenty  pounds.  They  were  used  to  manufac- 
ture this  metal  into  spoons  and  bracelets  for  them- 
selves. In  the  perfect  state  in  which  they  found  it, 
it  required  nothing  but  to  be  beat  into  shape.  The 
'  Pi-wa-bie,'  or  Iron  River,  enters  the  lake  to  the  west- 
ward of  the  Ontonagon,  and  here  it  is  pretended  sil- 
ver was  found,  while  the  country  was  in  the  possession 
of  the  French.  "—Part  I,  pp.  194-5. 

"  On  my  way  (1766)  I  encamped  a  second  time  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Ontonagon,  and  now  took  the  oppor- 
tunity of  going  ten  miles  up  the  river  with  Indian 
guides.  The  object  which  I  went  most  expressly  to 
see,  and  to  which  I  had  the  satisfaction  of  being  led, 
was  a  mass  of  copper,  of  the  weight,  according  to 
my  estimate,  of  no  less  than  five  tons.  Such  was  its 
pure  and  malleable  state,  that  with  an  axe  I  was  able 
to  cut  off  a  portion  weighing  a  hundred  pounds.  On 
viewing  the  surrounding  surface,  X  conjectured  that 
the  mass,  at  some  period  or  other,  had  rolled  from  the 
side  of  a  lofty  hill  which  rises  at  its  back." — p.  205. 

I  quote  extensively  from  Mr.  Henry's  interesting 
book,  because  it  is  now  out  of  print,  and  very  rare. 
Captain  Jonathan  Carver,  also,  travelled  in  the  Lake 
Superior  and  Mississippi  country  in  1766,  of  whom, 
after  the  manner  of  succeeding  travellers,  speaking 
of  their  predecessors,  Mr.  Henry  says,  "  and  he  falls 
into  other  errors."  The  Chippeways  told  Carver, 
that  being  once  driven  by  a  storm  to  the  Isle  de  Man- 


324  FUGITIVE    KSSAYS. 

repas  (now  Michipicoten),  they  had  found  large  quan- 
tities of  shining  earth,  4k  which  must  have  been  gold 
dust."  They  put  some  of  it  into  their  canoes,  km 
had  not  moved  far  from  the  land,  when  a  spirit  sixty 
feet  in  height  strode  into  the  water  and  ordered  them 
to  bring  every  particle  of  it  back  to  the  island.  This 
of  course  they  did,  and  never  ventured  again  to  the 
haunted  island. 

In  the  spring  of  1769,  Mr.  Henry,  excited  by  this 
ami  other  reports  of  the  Indians,  visited  the  islands, 
expecting  to  find  u  shining  rocks  and  stones  of  rare 
description,"  but  found  only  a  mass  of  rock  rising  in- 
to barren  mountains,  with  veins  of  spar.  The  Indians 
then  insisted  upon  going  to  another  island  to  the 
south  (Caribeou)  as  it  was  the  true  island  of  the 
"golden  sands;"  but  the  weather  prevented  this  visit 
at  that  time.  In  1770,  Mr.  Baxter,  Mr.  Bostwick, 
and  Mr.  Henry,  were  constituted  members  of  a  com- 
pany for  working  mines  on  Lake  Superior. 

"  We  passed  the  winter  together  at  Sault  de  Sainte 
Marie,  and  built  a  barge  fit  for  the  navigation  of  the 
lake,  at  the  same  time  laying  the  keel  of  a  sloop  of 
forty  tons.  Early  in  May,  1771,  we  departed  from 
Point  aux  Pins,  our  shipyard,  and  sailed  for  the  island 
of  Yellow  Sands,  promising  ourselves  to  make  our 
fortunes  in  defiance  of  the  serpents.  I  was  the  first 
to  land,  carrying  with  me  my  loaded  gun,  resolved 
to  meet  with  courage  the  guardians  of  the  gold. 

"  A  stay  of  three  days  did  not  enable  us  to  find 
gold,  <>r  even  yellow  sands,  and  no  serpents  appeared 
to  terrify  us,  not  even  the  smallest  and  most  harm- 
less snake. 

"On  the  fourth  day,  after  drying  our  Caribeou 
.  we   sailed   t*«»r  Nanibojou  (on  the  north  shore), 
which  we  readied  in  eighteen  hours  with  a  fair  bn 
On  the   next   day  the  miners  examined   the   coast  of 


TWO  MONTHS  IN  THE  COPPER  REGIONS.  325 

Nanibojou,  and  found  several  veins  of  copper  and 
lead,  and  after  this  returned  to  Point  aux  Pins,  where 
we  erected  an  air  furnace.  The  assayer  made  a  re- 
port on  the  ores  which  we  had  collected,  stating  that 
the  lead  ore  contained  silver  in  the  proportion  of  forty 
ounces  to  the  ton ;  but  the  copper  ore  only  in  very 
small  proportion  indeed.'' 

The  party  now  start  for  the  Ontonagon,  having  in 
company  a  Mr.  Norberg,  an  officer  in  the  60th  regi- 
ment then  stationed  at  Mackinaw,  old  fort.  At  Point 
Iroquois  he  found  among  the  loose  stones  one  "of 
eight  pounds,  of  a  blue  color,  and  semi-transparent," 
which  he  deposited  in  the  British  Museum  at  London, 
and  which,  it  is  said,  contained  sixty  per  cent  of  sil- 
ver. 

"  Hence  we  coasted  westward,  but  found  nothing 
till  we  reached  the  Ontonagon,  where,  besides  the  de- 
tached masses  of  copper  formerly  mentioned,  we  saw 
much  of  the  same  metal  imbedded  in  stone.  Propo- 
sing to  ourselves  to  make  a  trial  on  the  bill  till  we 
were  better  able  to  go  to  work  on  the  solid  rock,  we 
built  a  house  and  sent  to  the  Sault  de  Sainte  Marie 
for  provisions.  At  the  spot  pitched  upon  for  the  com- 
mencement of  our  preparations,  a  green  colored  wa- 
ter, which  tinged  iron  of  a  copper  color,  issued  from 
the  hill,  and  this  the  miners  called  a  leader.  In  dig- 
ging they  found  frequent  masses  of  copper,  some  of 
which  were  of  three  pounds  weight.  Having  ar- 
ranged everything  for  the  accommodation  of  the  miners 
during  the  winter,  we  returned  to  the  Sault.  Early 
in  the  spring  of  1772,  we  sent  a  boat-load  of  provis- 
ions, but  it  came  back  on  the  20th  day  of  June,  bring- 
ing with  it,  to  our  surprise,  the  whole  establishment 
of  miners.  They  reported  that  in  the  course  of  the 
winter  they  had  penetrated  forty  feet  into  the  hill, 
but  that  on  the  arrival  of  the  thaw,  the  clay  on  which, 
28 


326  FUGITIVE  ESSAYS. 

on  account  of  its  stiffness,  they  had  relied,  and  neg- 
lected to  secure  by  supports,  had  fallen  in  ;  that  from 
the  detached  masses  of  metal  which  to  the  last  had 
daily  presented  themselves,  they  supposed  there  might 
be  ultimately  reached  some  body  of  the  same,  but  could 
form  no  conjecture  of  its  distance.  Here  our  opera- 
tions tn  this  quarter  §nded.  It  was  never  for  the  ex- 
portation of  copper  that  our  company  was  formed,  but 
always  with  a  view  to  the  silver  which,  it  was  hoped 
the  ores,  whether  of  copper  or  lead,  might  in  sufficient 
quantity  contain." — pp.  227,  232. 

"  In  the  following  August  we  launched  our  sloop, 
and  carried  the  miners  to  the  vein  of  copper  ore  on 
the  north  side  of  the  lake  (probably  at  Nanibojou, 
about  one  day's  sail  from  Michipicoten).  Little  was 
done  during  the  winter,  but  by  dint  of  labor  perform- 
ed between  the  commencement  of  the  spring  of  1773, 
and  the  ensuing  month  of  September,  they  pene- 
trated thirty  feet  into  the  solid  rock.  The  rock  was 
blasted  with  great  difficulty,  and  the  vein  which  at 
the  beginning  was  of  the  breadth  of  four  feet,  had  in 
the  progress  contracted  into  four  inches.  Under 
these  circumstances  we  desisted,  and  carried  the  mi- 
ners back  to  the  Sault.  What  copper  ore  we  had  col- 
lected we  took  to  England,  but  the  next  season  we 
were  informed  that  the  partners  there  declined  enter- 
ing into  further  expenses.  In  the  interim  we  had  car- 
ried the  miners  along  the  north  shore,  as  far  as  the 
river  Pic,  making,  however,  no  discovery  of  import- 
ance. This  year,  therefore  (1774),  Mr.  Baxter  dis- 
posed of  the  sloop  and  other  effects  of  the  company, 
and  paid  its  debts.  The  partners  in  England  were 
his  Royal  Highness  the  Duke  of  Gloucester,  Mr,  Sec- 
retary Townshend,  Sir  Samuel  Tucket,  Baronet,  Mr. 
Baxter,  Consul  of  the  Empress  of  Russia,  and  Mr. 
Cruikshank.     In  America,  Sir  William  Johnson,  Bar- 


TWO  MONTHS  IN   THE  COPPER  REGIONS.  327 

ronet,  Mr.  Bostwick,  Mr.  Baxter,  and  myself.  A 
charter  had  been  petitioned  for  and  obtained,  but 
owing  to  our  ill  success,  it  was  never  taken  from  the 
seal  office."— pp.  234-5. 

There  is  living  an  old  chief  who,  when  a  boy,  saw 
this  company  of  English  miners  at  the  falls  of  the 
Ontonagon.  He  represents  the  manager  as  a  stout 
burly  man  with  a  red  face.  There  are  near  the  spot 
where  the  great  copper  rock  was  found,  remains  of  a 
chimney,  supposed  to  belong  to  the  house  spoken  of 
by  Henry.  The  timber  around  the  spot  was  of  a  sec- 
ond growth,  now  cut  away  by  Mr.  James  Paul,  who 
has  lived  there  and  located  a  three-mile  permit.  He 
told  me  that  an  aspen,  eighteen  inches  in  diameter,  had 
blown  down  near  his  cabin,  and  a  copper  kettle  was 
found  flattened  and  corroded  beneath  its  roots.  There 
are  also  the  remains  of  ancient  pits  still  visible,  and 
in  the  sand  and  clay  deposite,  by  digging,  lumps  of 
native  copper  are  now  found.  There  can,  therefore, 
be  no  doubt  but  this  is  the  spot  visited  by  the  English 
company  before  the  American  Revolution,  and  now 
become  again  an  object  of  hope  and  notoriety. 

This  region  is  singularly  wild  and  disordered. 
The  Falls,  which  are  distinct  from  the  "Rapids,"  are 
caused  by  the  irregular  upheaval  of  trap,  sandstone, 
and  conglomerate,  thrown  about  in  grand  confusion. 
To  the  miner  and  geologist  such  points  possess  not 
only  the  greatest  interest,  but  the  greatest  practical 
value. 

Here  appears  to  be  one  of  those  great  centres  of 
convulsion  which  raised  and  tossed  about  the  metal- 
liferous rocks.  Another  may  be  seen  to  the  eastward 
of  the  Portage  Lakes.  From  the  central  point  in  each 
direction  along  the  line  of  action,  that  is  to  say,  in  a 
north-easterly  and  south-westerly  course,  the  height 
of  the   upheaval  and  the  extent   of  the    distortion 


828  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

gradually  becomes  less  on  each  side.  The  effect  of 
the  subterranean  forces  being  very  much  the  sime 
upon  the  overlying  sand-rock,  as  that  of  a  projecting 
point  of  rock  upon  the  ice  of  an  estuary  of  the  sea 
when  the  tide  falls  away.  The  trap-uplifts  represent 
the  rock,  itself  rising  instead  of  the  sandstone  stratum 
settling.  The  resemblance  is  not  perfect,  but  only 
illustrative.  The  field  of  ice  subsiding  upon  a  sharp 
point  of  rock,  in  a  bay  of  quiet  waters,  will  break  and 
crack  equally  in  all  directions;  but  the  uprising  trap, 
though  it  has  a  centre,  does  not  act  equally  on  all 
sides ;  for  there  is  a  line  of  upheaval,  along  which  the 
force  operates,  giving  rise  to  an  elevated  ridge,  which 
is  highest  at  the  centre,  or  focus.  It  has  a  breadth 
of  five  to  fifteen  miles,  and  a  length  of  fifty  or  sixty. 
The  trap-rock  intruding  from  below,  has  within  itself 
a  certain  regularity,  which  I  have  noticed  before: 
throwing  up  long  parallel  faces,  looking  inward  to- 
wards the  line  of  greatest  elevation. 

On  this  fact,  I  have  from  observation  a  knowledge 
of  only  a  portion  of  the  northern  half  of  the  trap 
range,  from  the  Manitou  Islands  to  Iron  river,  a  dis- 
tance of  about  120  miles.  I  did  not  cross  the  range 
far  enough  to  ascertain  the  position  of  the  southern 
half,  and  give  this  statement  of  its  organization  upon 
the  representation  of  other  explorers,  whom  I  have  no 
reason  to  doubt. 

These  ranges  are  not  in  every  case  parallel  to  the 
great  anticlinal  line,  but  generally  they  are  so.  There 
are  cases  of  spurs,  or  lateral  ranges,  of  limited  extent, 
branching  off  from  the  main  pile.  Both  the  trap  and 
the  overlying  Conriomfewtia  rocks  are  very  hard  to 
work.  The  trap  is  the  most  compact,  but  is  more 
uniform  in  its  texture.  The  conglomerate  encloses 
pebbles  of  all  sizes,  and  of  many  different  rocks,  most 
of  them  very  hard.     This  want  of  honiogenity  pre- 


TWO  MONTHS  IN  THE  COPPER  REGIONS.  329 

vents  the  blast  from  producing  that  effect  which  it 
would  on  a  close,  uniform,  tight  rock.  I  think  there 
can  be  little  doubt  but  Mr.  Henry's  conjecture  res- 
pecting the  source  of  the  copper  rock  of  the  Ontonagon, 
and  the  many  copper  boulders,  found  in  the  red  clay 
deposite,  is  correct.  That  they  were  loosened  from 
their  position  in  a  neighboring  vein,  by  the  disenteg- 
ration  of  the  enclosing  rock,  and  by  the  force  of  gra- 
vity and  that  agent,  whatever  it  may  have  been,  which 
brought  on  the  red  sand*  and  clay  deposite,  they  have 
been  scattered  around.  The  red  deposite  is  evidently 
younger  than  the  sandstone  and  the  trap,  for  it  is 
horizontal.  The  sandstone,  it  is  equally  evident,  is 
older  than  the  trap,  for  the  latter  has  shot  up  through 
it,  tilting  it  outward  from  the  line  of  uplift.  The  cop- 
per boulders  are  found  imbedded  in  the  red  loam,  as 
it  may  be  called,  and  must  have  been  loosened  from 
the  vein  at  and  before  the  period,  when  it  (the  loam) 
was  brought  on. 

The  native  copper,  which  is  the  principal  ore  of 
the  country,  (if  metal  can  be  called  an  ore,)  exists  in 
the  veins  in  all  sizes  and  shapes,  from  the  weight  of 
the  point  of  a  pin  to  20,  40,  100,  1,000  and  1,500 
pounds.  A  boulder  was  found  this  season,  near  the 
mouth  of  Elm  river,  weighing  over  1,500  pounds, 
which  is  now  at  New  Haven.  I  saw  an  irregular  mass 
in  a  vein  near  Agate  Harbor,  about  one  mile  east, 
which  might,  with  great  care,  have  been  taken  out, 
weighing  800  to  1,000  pounds.  It  was  removed  in 
one  body,  to  the  amount  of  400  pounds ;  but  to  pro- 
cure such  specimens,  there  is  great  trouble  and  ex- 
pense in  securing  all  the  prongs  against  damage  by 
the  blast.  These  boulders  are  found  in  the  water- 
worn  pebbles  of  the  shore,  and  of  various  sizes,  from 
one  to  forty  and  one  hundred  pounds.  They  are  also 
found  far  to  the  southward,  in  Wisconsin — giving  rise 

-  !    ■  .-.:■  —  _.  .'J-ui 


330  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

to  great  hopes  and  speculations — transported  by  that 
universal  power  (whatever  it  was)  which  covered  the 
northern  hemisphere  with  drift  from  the  north. 

It  may  then  be  suggested,  whether  the  great  cop- 
per rock  and  its  satellites  of  the  Falls  of  the  Ontona- 
gon were  not  carried  thither  in  the  same  manner. 
There  is  certainly  room  for  such  a  doubt.  But  no 
matter  how  far  these  masses  of  copper  have  been  trans- 
ported, or  how  short  the  distance  they  have  been 
moved,  they  must  have  originally  been  derived  from 
veins.  Here  we  find  not  the  particular  veins  from 
which  the  boulder  was  extracted,  but  fiud  in  the  coun- 
try veins  containing  exactly  such  masses.  They  may 
have  been  dragged  from  regions  farther  north,  where 
similar  veins  probably  exist,  but  as  there  is  no  neces- 
sity for  going  to  so  great  a  distance  in  search  of  their 
origin,  so  there  is  not  as  great  a  probability  of  finding 
their  original  seat  far  from  their  present  position. 
The  difficulty  of  transporting  such  heavy  material  is 
a  strong  reason  against  distance,  though  not  a  con- 
clusive one. 

But  In  the  case  of  the  great  rock,  the  number  of 
attending  fragments  is  so  numerous — so  much  more 
so  than  is  known  anywhere  else  at  a  distance  from  the 
veins,  that  little  doubt  remains  that  they  are  from  a 
nest  not  very  far  off.  In  the  gold  region,  and  in  the 
lead  mines,  where  loose  metal  is  found,  the  miner  be- 
gins to  search  in  all  directions  to  ascertain  from 
whence  it  came.  If  he  finds  it  more  abundant  on  one 
side  than  another,  he  examines  more  closely  the  soil 
of  that  side ;  and  if  found  to  increase  as  he  proceeds, 
he  is  convinced  that  he  is  on  the  trail.  As  he  follows 
this,  the  evidences  multiply,  and  at  last  he  arrives  at 
the  parent  vein,  from  which  the  scattered  fragments 
were  driven.  It  is  probable  that  time,  money,  and 
enterprise,    will   finish   what   the    English   company 


TWO  MONTHS  IN  THE  COPPER  REGIONS.  331 

began,  and  at  last  disclose  a  prominent  vein  within 
hearing  of  the  cataracts  of  the  west  branch. 

The  mouth  of  the  Ontonagon  is  one  of  those  com- 
manding points  that  strike  the  observer  at  first  glance. 
As  Henry  says,  it  is  the  principal  river  of  the  south 
shore,  and  the  only  one,  except  the  Chocolate  river 
and  Grand  Marais,  where  a  vessel  can  enter.  There 
is  now,  in  a  low  stage  of  the  lake,  six  feet  water  on 
the  bar,  and  deep  water  several  miles  up  the  stream, 
which  is  about  300  feet  wide.  It  is  the  natural  outlet 
of  a  large  farming  region,  which  the  surveyors  say, 
extends  fifty  or  sixty  miles  interior,  and  forty  or  fifty 
each  way  along  the  shore.  The  mineral  belt  occupies 
several  miles  in  width,  at  this  point  ten  or  twelve  miles 
from  the  shore,  and  parallel  with  it ;  but  at  the  mouth 
of  Iron,  Black,  and  Montreal  rivers,  it  comes  down 
to  the  waters  of  the  lake.  On  each  side  of  this  range, 
and  even  among  the  Porcupine  Mountains,  the  agri- 
cultural resources  of  the  country  are  only  limited  by 
the  shortness  of  the  seasons.  The  soil  is  good — the 
climate  without  an  equal  for  health  and  strength,  and 
the  lake  and  streams  abound  in  fish.  The  swamps 
and  the  flat  lands  produce  wild  grass  in  abundance, 
showing  the  tendency  of  the  soil  to  that  production. 
Potatoes,  turnips,  and  all  roots  grow  here  in  the  great- 
est perfection,  and  oats  and  barley  do  well.  I  have 
little  doubt  but  it  will  also  be  found  an  excellent 
wheat  region. 

We  found  the  rich  bottom-lands  of  the  Ontonagon 
already  dotted  with  the  cabins  of  pre-emption  claim- 
ants, for  several  miles  up  the  river.  The  Indians 
have  a  tradition  about  the  name  of  Ontonagon,  as 
about  almost  every  thing  else,  and  say  it  is  truly 
"Nindinagon."  That  an  old  woman,  long  ago,  was 
cooking  on  the  shore  at  the  mouth,  and  her  dish  slip- 
ped into  the  current  and  was  carried  out  into  the  lake. 


332  FUGITIVE  ESSAYS. 

She  exclaimed,    "Oh!  there  goes  my  dish,"  the  In- 
dian of  which  is  said  to  be  Nindinagon. 

The  site  at  its  mouth  is  rather  low  and  swampy. 
On  the  west  the  Porcupine  Mountains  rise  boldly  out 
of  the  water,  at  the  distance  of  twenty  miles,  present- 
ing that  peculiar  outline  of  the  trap  uplifts,  by  which 
they  may  be  recognised  afar  off  almost  as  well  as  by 
inspection.  A  cross-section,  which  would  also  corre- 
spond with  the  end  view  from  the  Ontonagon,  may  be 
compared  to  the  notches  or  teeth  of  a  mill-saw  laid 
upon  its  back,  one  edge  straight  and  vertical,  the 
other  sloping.  If  the  expectations  of  mineral  locators 
are  realized,  the  prosecution  of  the  mining  business 
will  of  itself  create  a  place  of  some  importance  here. 
To  the  farmer  of  New  England  there  will  be  great 
inducements,  as  soon  as  the  mining  operations  are 
placed  upon  a  sure  footing;  for  the  products  most 
congenial  to  the  region  are  such  as  are  bulky,  and 
cost  much  in  their  transportation,  to  wit :  potatoes 
and  roots,  hay  and  oats.  It  is  well  known  that  miners 
never  till  the  soil  to  much  purpose.  A  garden  and  a 
little  pasture  suffice  for  them.  This  must  be  done  by 
the  practical  farmer.  The  mineral  and  the  agricul- 
tural districts  are  here  so  admirably  situated,  as  mu- 
tually to  render  to  each  interest  the  greatest  assist- 
ance. When  the  navigation  shall  be  completed  around 
the  rapids  of  the  St.  Mary's,  the  emigrant  and  miner, 
placing  himself  at  any  harbor  of  any  of  the  lakes, 
may  take  his  passage  to  any  part  of  Lake  Superior, 
with  his  family  and  effects.  The  hardy  son  of  Ver- 
mont and  New  Hampshire  will  find  here  his  own  cli- 
mate and  mountains,  his  own  trout  streams,  and  a 
good  substitute  for  the  shad  and  salmon  of  the  ocean  ; 
and  a  soil,  equal  to  most  parts  of  the  West,  without 
the  fever  and  ague  of  the  more  southern  portions. 
The  facility  of  making  roads  to  the  interior  is  great, 


TWO  MONTHS  IN  THE  COPPER  REGIONS.  333 

and  along  the  shore  they  are  practicable.  Of  course, 
on  the  immediate  coast,  ravines  are  too  frequent  to 
cross  without  expensive  bridges.  But  a  few  miles  in- 
land, the  country  rises,  the  valleys  of  the  streams 
diminish,  and  a  very  favorable  country  is  found  as  far 
east  as  the  Portage  Lakes  and  the  Anse.  Here  the 
swamps  and  lakes  form  the  only  serious  obstacles,  and 
they  ,-ire  avoided  by  good  selections  of  routes.  The 
difficulty  of  making  roads  in  the  Ontonagon  region  is 
far  less  than  it  was  in  the  first  settlement  of  Ohio. 

Until  the  night  of  the  5th  of  October  I  had  not 
observed  any  frost,  although  the  leaves  were  already 
colored  with  the  hues  of  autumn,  and  falling  from 
their  stems,  had  begun  to  cover  the  ground.  The 
winds  and  rains  that  occurred  between  the  5th  and 
the  10th  left  the  branches  of  the  trees  almost  as 
naked  as  in  winter,  and  the  snow  began  to  fall.  We 
were  received  at  the  Agency  house  with  that  liberality 
of  hospitality  which  can  be  found  nowhere  more  full 
and  hearty  than  among  the  backwoodsmen  of  the 
West.  Major  Campbell,  the  agent,  was  absent  in 
search  of  a  copper  rock,  in  the  neighborhood  of  "Lake 
Vieux  Desert,"  about  150  miles  distant.  In  the  even- 
ing, Mr.  Paul,  who  has  been  three  years  in  the  coun- 
try, and  who  had  joined  in  the  wild-goose  chase  after 
the  copper  rock,  on  the  faith  of  an  Indian,  came  in, 
and  amused  the  company  till  a  late  hour  by  reciting 
the  stratagems  and  effrontery  of  their  Indian  guide. 

Since  the  whites  have  shown  such  an  intense  curi- 
osity about  copper  rocks,  they  have  sprung  up  on  all 
sides.  Every  Indian  knows  where  one  may  be  found. 
It  can  be  had  of  any  size  or  shape,  and  generally  for 
the  price  of  a  few  dollars  and  provisions  for  the  trip. 
It  is  generally  seven,  ten,  or  twelve  days'  journey  to 
it.  The  Great  Spirit  and  the  tribe  will  destroy  or 
otherwise  injure  him  who  shows  it  to  the  white  man, 


334  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

but  they  will  lead  him  to  the  vicinity,  and  he  can  do 
the  rest.  In  this  case  a  monster  was  to  be  found,  and 
the  price  was  to  correspond;  but  fifty  or  sixty  dollars 
was  somehow  procured  in  advance.  The  Indian  lived 
in  the  neighborhood  of  the  rock  and  had  shown  it  to 
but  one  other  mortal,  a  half-breed,  now  dead.  After 
great  labor  and  vexation,  the  party  approached  the 
sacred  place.  There  are  four  trees  marked  with  por- 
cupines,* done  in  charcoal,  according  to  the  descrip- 
tion. They  were  far  from  any  trap  ranges,  in  a  low, 
swampy  country.  The  Indian  fixes  his  eyes  in  a  given 
direction,  and  all  are  elated  with  a  certainty  of  success. 
They  scour  the  woods  in  that  direction,  but  no  rock  is 
found.  The  Indian  and  his  boy  wish  to  be  left  to 
pursue  the  search  by  themselves,  and  still  the  rock 
hides  itself.  He  is  watched,  and  they  find  that  he 
only  moves  around  in  a  limited  circle,  and  returns  to 
the  camp.  Hesitating  between  the  apprehension  that 
he  is  duped,  and  the  realization  of  his  hopes,  the  agent 
becomes  impatient.  The  Indian  at  length  points  his 
finger  to  the  spot,  but  the  Great  Spirit  had  sunk  the 
rock  deep  into  the  earth.  The  Irrdian  is  calm  and 
immovable.  " Hou,  hou — march  on  iviywam"  he 
says,  in  the  usual  tone.  "  What  does  he  say?"  in- 
quires the  agent.  "  He  says,  we  had  better  go  to  his 
wigwam,"  replies  the  interpreter.  The  scene  changes 
from  the  highest  expectations  to  the  highest  rage. 
"  Give  him  a  hundred  lashes — break  every  bone  in 
his  body — kill  him  I"  and  expressions  of  this  sort  are 
now  heard,  with  gestures  to  match.  The  Indian  could 
not  understand  English,  but  knew  enough  to  be  sen- 
sible that  some  cursing  was  going  on,  ami  that  lie  was 
the  object.  He  now  began  to  kindle  with  wrath.  The 
first  motion  was  to  throw  down  his  pack,  and  in  this 
he  was  followed  by  the  boy  and  two  <»r  three  other 
Indians   of    the    party.      What   was    the   a^ent,    the 


TWO  MONTHS  IN  THE  COPPER  REGIONS.  335 

surveyor,  and  the  interpreter  to  do,  here  in  this  wil- 
derness, deserted  by  their  packers  and  guides.  Paul, 
who  had  long  known  the  Indian's  cunning,  saw  at 
once  the  position  of  affairs,  laughed  at  the  agent,  and 
offered  the  Indians  a  half  dollar  to  take  up  their 
packs.  They  had,  in  the  mean  time,  proceeded  from 
anger  to  mockery.  They  had  paraded  themselves  in 
advance  of  the  party,  strutting  along  with  some  small 
willow  sticks  on  their  shoulders,  in  derision  of  the 
heavy  loads  under  which  the  whites  were  groaning. 
The  latter  were  obliged  not  only  to  pocket  the  insult, 
but  to  employ  the  old  man,  his  boy,  wife,  and  canoe, 
to  cross  some  lakes  that  lay  in  their  route  home. 

Coming  in  they  met  another  party  of  whites,  with 
the  usual  complement  of  Indians,  also  in  search  of  a 
copper  rock,  said  to  exist  in  the  region  of  Lake  Vieux 
Desert.  If  such  rocks  were  actually  visible,  no  Indian 
would  show  it,  sq  long  as  he  can  get  one-half  of  his 
yearly  support  from  it  as  a  guide.  Those  who  know 
them  best,  say  that  it  matters  little  to  the  explorer 
whether  such  boulders  exist  or  not,  the  Indians  will 
never  be  guilty  of  showing  one  to  a  white  man.  There 
is  a  superstition  upon  the  subject,  and  it  is  also  a  rule 
that  the  proceeds  of  a  found  rock  should  be  divided, 
and  a  large  portion  go  to  the  chief.  In  case  an  In- 
dian actually  knew  of  one,  he  would  not  disclose  its 
position,  unless  he  was  sure  the  fact  would  never  be 
made  known  to  his  tribe. 

On  the  morning  of  the  second  day  the  square-sail 
of  our  boat,  which  had  been  to  La  Pointe,  appeared 
at  the  foot  of  the  Porcupine  Mountains,  bright  in  the 
light  of  the  rising  sun.  At  eleven  it  entered  the  river, 
before  a  bountiful  breeze,  and  the  company  was  once 
more  together. 

The  mining  company  for  which  we  were  acting,  is 
called  the  "Algonquin,"  and  is  composed  principally 


336  FUGITIVE  ESSAYS. 

of  citizens  of  Detroit.  Our  locations  were  made,  four 
in  number,  upon  the  waters  of  Flint  Steel  River,  and 
we  were  now  on  the  way  thither  to  make  preparations 
for  the  men  who  were  to  stay  through  the  winter. 
Towards  evening  we  entered  the  mouth  of  Flint  Steel 
River,  which  is  six  miles  east  of  the  Ontonagon.  Drag- 
ging the  boat  over  the  bar,  and  rowing  it  two  miles  up 
the  stream,  we  landed.  From  thence  to  the  locations 
is  about  twelve  miles  over  a  beautiful  rolling  country 
of  sugar  in  a  pie.  The  copper  found  here  is  chiefly 
native,  and  is  enclosed  in  the  trap  rock.  We  brought 
away  a  piece  weighing  seven  pounds,  that  lay  in  a 
vein  near  the  surface. 

On  the  13th  we  were  again  at  the  boat,  working 
out  of  the  river.  For  several  days  there  had  been 
snow  and  indications  of  the  close  of  the  season.  The 
snow  was  still  falling  as  we  proceeded  down  the  lake 
after  dark,  with  a  view  of  reaching  Elm  River ;  but 
the  water  was  calm,  and  the  oarsmen  were  making 
good  speed.  A  little  after  nine  o'clock  we  passed  the 
mouth  of  Misery  River,  a  bleak  and  desert  place  with- 
out firewood,  and  some  of  the  party  fancying  they 
saw  a  light  at  the  old  camp  at  Elm  River,  the  boat 
was  kept  on  her  course.  It  was  difficult  to  see  the 
shore  at  the  distance  of  twenty  rods  on  account  of 
the  falling  snow. 

About  half-past  nine,  a  light  puff  came  on  from 
the  north-west,  which  aroused  the  attention  of  Martin 
at  once.  "  If  the  next  one  (says  he)  is  stift'er  than 
that,  we  must  put  about  for  Misery  River."  A  sharp 
ilaw  followed  his  words,  and  the  boat  was  put  about. 
Rut  it  was  searcely  before  the  breeze,  when  it  came 
in  short,  irregular  blasts,  and  the  water  became  agi- 
tated. MarttD  was  our  oracle  on  the  water.  He  said 
w •■  must  make  the  shore  instantly,  and  the  craft, 
bounding  and  splashing,  was  headed  for  a  light  streak 


TWO  MONTHS  IN  THE  COPPER  REGIONS.  337 

that  appeared  to  be  a  sand  beach,  but  above  which 
frowned  a  dark  line  like  a  bluff.  Before  she  struck, 
the  sharp,  irregular  waves  combed  freely  over  the 
sides  and  the  stern  of  the  boat, 

"  Charley,  Patrick,  Mike,  and  all  hands,  throw 
your  oars  and  jump  ashore  I"  Every  man  was  in  the 
water  in  a  moment,  holding  her  by  the  head.  "  Keep 
her  stern  off ;  heave,  ho !  heave,  ho  I  Now  she  sticks. 
Throw  out  the  luggage  before  she  fills.  Keep  her 
stern  off;  heave,  ho!  Now  she  rests;  take  a  line  to 
that  root."  It  would  seem  that  not  more  than  five 
minutes  had  passed  since  we  were  quietly  moving  over 
that  water,  from  which  we  were  now  thankful  to  seek 
relief  on  land.  The  storm  had  already  become  a  tem- 
pest, roaring  through  the  woods  and  over  the  waves 
like  a  tornado.  There  stood  the  giant  frame  of  Char- 
ley at  the  stern  of  the  boat,  the  waves  dashing  over 
him,  lifting  and  pushing  her  towards  the  shore ;  the 
others  grasping  her  by  the  sides,  assisted  to  work  her 
farther  on,  but  she  was  too  much  loaded  with  water 
to  be  moved  by  main  strength ;  Martin  soon  rigged 
the  halyards  into  a  purchase  with  two  blocks,  by  which 
advantage  she  was  drawn  beyond  the  reach  of  the  sea, 
that  seemed  to  grow  more  angry  as  we  rescued  the  boat 
from  that  element 

There  is  generally  within  hailing  distance  a 
birch  tree  to  be  found,  and  the  ragged  outside 
bark,  that  rolls  up  like  paper  in  tatters,  will  burn 
at  the  touch  of  fire.  No  matter  whether  the  tree  is 
green  or  dry,  or  the  day  has  been  wet  or  dry, 
there  is  some  side  of  a  birch  tree  from  which  there 
can  be  pulled  a  handfull  of  these  paper-like  shreds,  to 
kindle  a  fire.  These,  with  a  few  small  dead  cedar 
limbs,  will  always  with  due  care  give  the  foundation 
of  a  camp-fire.  But  to  be  more  certain,  voyageur3 
usually  carry  a  roll  of  peeled  birch  bark,  the  remains 
29 


338  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

of  some  bark  canoe,  and  this,  broken  and  split  into 
strips,  burns  at  once.  Groping  about  among  the  bal- 
sams and  pines  that  stood  thick  on  the  beach,  no  birch 
could  be  found.  The  roll  in  the  boat  had  been  wash- 
ed out,  and  though  found  at  last,  was  coarse  and  wet. 
The  wind  and  snow  which  penetrated  every  nook  and 
corner  added  to  the  difficulty  of  starting  a  blaze,  and 
some  of  the  party  began  to  yield  to  the  influence  of 
cold  and  exhaustion,  when  we  found  a  piece  of  dry 
pine  board,  and  cutting  it  into  shavings,  had  the  satis- 
faction to  see  it  flame  up  brightly  at  the  root  of  a  tree. 
A  dish  of  hot  tea  revived  every  one,  and  at  one  o'clock 
the  whole  party  were  as  sound  asleep  as  ever,  in  a 
little  hollow,  back  from  the  shore.  But  the  storm 
raged  on  until  the  morning  after  the  succeeding  day, 
when  we  ventured  to  put  ourselves  before  it,  and 
reached  Copper  Harbor,  sixty  miles  distant,  in  eleven 
hours  without  landing.  As  we  passed  the  Eagle  River, 
a  number  of  people  were  seen  along  the  coast  where 
the  spray  still  dashed  over  the  rocks,  in  search,  as  we 
afterwards  learned,  of  the  body  of  Dr.  Houghton,  who 
with  two  of  his  men  were  lost  there  as  the  gale  arose. 
It  is  remarkable  that  no  more  persons  were  shipwreck- 
ed on  that  dreadful  night.  A  birch  canoe  with  an 
Indian  and  his  boy,  and  a  white  man,  put  out  from 
Agate  Harbor,  and  sailed  in  the  height  of  the  storm 
to  Eagle  Harbor,  several  miles.  Other  boats  were  ex- 
posed at  various  points,  but,  by  seeking  the  shore  in 
season,  escaped  the  danger.  Dr.  II.  had  the  misfor- 
tune to  be  opposite  a  forbidding  coast,  with  rocks  ex- 
tending into  the  water,  and  shallow  for  some  distance 
out.  It  was  not  his  misfortune  alone,  but  that  of 
science  and  the  nation.  The  boat  did  not,  as  it  ap- 
pears from  the  survivors,  cap****,  s<>  capable  is  I  well- 
built  sail-boat  of  resisting  severe  weather,  but  was 
MQt  end  over  end,  probably  by  hitting  the  bottom, 
while  in  a  trough  of  the  MM. 


TWO  MONTHS  IN  THE  COPPER  REGIONS.  339 

In  September,  a  boat  of  about  the  same  size  made 
the  passage  from  Isle  Royal  to  Copper  Harbor,  direct 
across  the  open  lake,  with  a  bark  canoe  in  tow,  before 
a  severe  gale.  A  party  of  seven  men,  among  whom 
was  Mr.  Hall  of  the  New  York  survey,  were  on  the 
island,  and  short  of  provisions.  The  vessel  which  was 
expected  to  take  them  off  had  missed  the  rendezvous, 
and  they  were  driven  to  attempt  the  passage  in  their 
open  boats.  When  fairly  out  on  the  lake,  the  wind 
which  was  fair  increased  to  a  gale,  in  which  they  gave 
themselves  up  for  lost.  About  midway  from  the  two 
shores  the  canoe  and  two  men  went  adrift,  and  it  be- 
came necessary  to  put  about  and  take  them  again  in 
tow.  When  it  is  considered  how  much  the  lug  of  a 
canoe  impedes  and  endangers  a  small  sail  boat  in  bad 
weather,  it  will  be  regarded  as  a  miracle  of  preserva- 
tion that  these  men  completed  their  voyage  in  safety. 

I  intended  to  give  a  brief  notice  of  the  mines  now 
in  operation,  but  have  already  made  a  much  longer 
article,  as  I  fear,  than  will  suit  a  magazine  reader. 

The  most  extensive  works  are  those  belonging  to 
the  "  Lake  Superior  Company,"  at  Eagle  River,  under 
the  superintendence  of  Colonel  C.  H.  Gratiot.  There 
were  here  about  120  workmen,  and  in  September  near 
800  tons  of  ore  ready  for  the  stamping  or  crushing 
machine.  This  machine  is  a  very  nice  piece  of  mechan- 
ism that  works  by  water,  and  crushes  ten  tons  of  the 
rock  in  a  day.  The  principal  shaft,  then  seventy  feet 
deep,  was  in  a  vein  or  dyke  about  eleven  feet  wide, 
one-half  of  which  bears  native  silver  in  such  quanti- 
ties as  to  be  an  object  without  regarding  the  copper. 
Whether  it  is  a  true  vein,  or  an  irregular  mass,  I  find 
geologists  do  not  agree ;  but  for  practical  purposes  it 
is  regular  and  extensive. 

About  four  miles  south-west  from  this,  the  "  Pitts- 
burg Company"  are  working  a  vein  about  four  feet 


340  FUGITIVE   ESS 

wide,  which  bears  silver  also,  but  its  value  is  not  as 
well  tested  as  the  Lake  Superior  Company's  bed. 
Eagle  River  is  only  a  brook  coming  down  from  the 
mountains,  which  a  man  may  cross  by  two  steps  at 
low  water.  The  shaft  and  pounding  mill  are  about 
one  and  a  half  miles  from  the  shore,  and  their  landing 
is  five  or  six  miles  east.  At  Eagle  Harbor  they  have 
a  saw-mill  and  many  buildings.  The  celebrity  of  the 
mines,  and  the  scarcity  of  places  of  shelter,  have 
caused  a  great  many  persons  to  visit  the  spot  during 
the  past  season.  The  superintendent  and  his  assist- 
ants hare,  however,  always  shown  visitors  that  atten- 
tion and  hospitality  which  could  nowhere  be  esteemed 
more  highly.  About  three  miles  east  of  Eagle  River 
is  the  Ilenshaw  location,  not  as  yet  much  worked. 
On  the  west  side  of  Eagle  Harbor,  at  Sprague's  loca- 
tion, I  procured  a  handsome  specimen  of  silver,  which 
appeared  to  be  abundant.  On  the.  east  side  is  the 
Bailey  location,  not  worked,  but  which  is  well  spoken 
of.  On  Agate  Harbor  the  "  New  York  ami  Lake  Su- 
perior Company"  had  sunk  three  shafts  without  hitting 
the  metallic  vein.  The  "Boston  Company"  have  an 
establishment  at  the  east  end  of  the  harbor.  Within 
two  miles,  on  the  east,  there  are  two  veins,  from  one 
of  which  a  piece  of  native  copper,  weighing  about  400 
pounds,  was  taken  by  Mr.  Hempstead,  and  in  the 
other  a  valuable  sulphuret  of  copper  has  since  been 
discovered.  A  vein  of  sulphuret  is  also  known  on  the 
waters  of  Mineral  Creek,  a  few  miles  west  of  the  On- 
tonagon. 

The  "  Massachusetts  Company"  have  commenced 
works  about  a  mile  west  of  the  extremity  of  C<> 
Harbor,  where  several  veins,  apparently  rich,  ami 
to  carry  silver,  have  been  opened  on  the  c 
the   Harbor    the    "Pittsburgh    Company"    have    two 
shafts,  from  which  they  h,  em  I   tons  of 


TWO  MONTHS  IN  THE  COPPER  REGIONS.  34 1 

the  rich  black  oxyde.  A  mile  east  is  a  location  of 
the  "Isle  Royal  Company,"  under  the  charge  of  Mr. 
Cyrus  3Iendenhall,  employing  ten  or  fifteen  hands. 

There  are  probably  now  in  the  country  600  per- 
sons engaged  in  mining,  as  laborers,  agents,  clerks, 
superintendents,  and  mining  engineers. 

Communication  is  kept  up  with  them  during  the 
winter,  by  a  semi-monthly  mail  from  Green  Bay, 
taken  on  the  back  of  a  man  by  way  of  the  Menominee 
River  and  the  Anse  to  the  post-office  at  Fort  Wilkins. 
This  does  not  allow  the  carriage  of  newspapers  or 
heavy  packages,  but  only  letters.  Although  the  win- 
ter is  severe,  it  is  so  uniform  that  those  who  have 
tried  it  do  not  complain,  and  even  pursue  their  jour- 
neys with  more  facility  by  land  than  they  can  in  sum- 
mer. If  a  road  were  open  to  Green  Bay,  the  journey 
would  be  made  in  four  or  five  days  over  a  road  which, 
once  trod,  would  be  perfect  for  several  months.  From 
the  best  information  derived  from  mail  carriers  and 
gentlemen  who  have  made  the  trip  on  snow-shoes,  it 
is  not  an  expensive  route  for  a  road. 

I  have  spoken  frequently  of  the  fluctuations  of  the 
needle,  and  of  its  variations.  The  surveys  in  this  re- 
gion can  be  made  only  with  the  solar  compass,  or 
some  instrument  of  that  nature.  The  one  used  by 
Judge  Burt,  who  has  run  all  the  township  lines  west 
of  the  Sault,  is  of  his  own  invention.  It  is  now  made 
in  England  for  exportation  to  this  country.  This 
compass  is  placed  in  the  meridian  by  an  apparatus 
always  directed  on  the  sun,  and  as  it  carries  a  needle, 
shows  the  variation  every  time  it  is  set. 

At  the  Sault,  the  regular  variation  was  given  2° 
east,  which,  at  every  section  corner  on  the  town  lines, 
is  written  with  red  chalk  on  the  stake.  At  south-west 
corner  section  19,  range  35  west,  T.  55  north,  varia- 
tion 7°  15'  east ;  6  miles  directly  south,  5°  15'  east. 
29* 


342  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

One  mile  north  of  south-east  corner  of  T.  52  north, 
range  36  west,  variation  5°  5;;  one  mile  west,  6°  5\ 
At  south  corner  of  T.  52,  range  37,  variation  5°  15J' 
east ;  one  mile  north,  1°  10';  two  miles  west,  1°  35'; 
three  miles  further  west,  8°  15'.  At  middle  of  south 
line  of  T.  51  north,  range  40  west,  variation  5°  35' 
east. 

For  game  we  saw  pheasants,  or  as  some  call  them 
partridges,  in  great  numbers,  and  also  red  squirrels. 
No  turkeys,  deer,  or  black  squirrels.  There  are  bears,, 
moose,  and  reindeer ;  yet  they  are  not  numerous. 
There  is  also  an  animal  of  the  wild-cat  species,  called 
a  lynx,  whose  tracks  we  saw.  For  reptiles  we  saw 
none  but  a  few  feeble  garter  snakes.  There  are  owls, 
mice,  and  rabbits  in  abundance.  We  saw  no  insects 
of  consequence,  except  spiders,  and  these  were  suffi- 
ciently numerous  to  be  troublesome.  During  the  lat- 
ter part  of  June  and  the  whole  of  July,  in  the  woods 
and  low  places,  there  are  countless  myriads  of  mos- 
quitoes and  sand-flies.  They  are  said  not  to  be  trou- 
blesome on  the  coast. 

Much  of  the  comfort  of  a  trip  in  this  region  de- 
pends on  the  outfit.  Arrangements  should  be  made 
for  a  supply  of  at  least  two  pounds  of  solid  food  per 
day  for  each  man,  and  a  surplus  for  friends  who  are 
less  provident. 

The  cheapest,  least  weighty  and  bulky,  as  well  as 
the  best  for  health  and  relish,  are  hard  bread,  beans, 
and  salt  pork  of  the  very  best  quality.  Tea,  coffee, 
and  sugar  are  in  such  cases  not  necessaries,  but  are, 
for  the  expense  and  trouble,  the  greatest  and  che;i 
luxuries  that  can  be  had  under  any  circui 
To  every  two  men  there  must  be  a  email  camp-kettle, 
and  if  in  a  boat  a  large  kettle  and  frying-pan.  In 
the  woods,  a  hatchet  to  every  two  men,  and  a  strong 
tin  cup  for  each,   with  a   surplus  of  one-half  these 


TWO  MONTHS  IN  THE  COPPER  REGIONS  343 

articles  to*  make  up  for  losses.  Knives,  forks,  and 
spoons  disappear  so  fast,  that  two  sets  to  each  man 
will  be  none  too  many.  Salt  and  pepper  are  indispen- 
sable for  the  game  you  may  kill ;  and  if  there  are 
a  plenty  of  horse-pistols,  a  great  many  pheasants  may 
be  shot  without  much  loss  of  time.  But  these  are  not 
to  be  taken  into  account  for  supplies. 

A  pocket-compass  is  necessary  to  each  party.  For 
a  pack  there  is  nothing  better  than  a  knapsack  and 
straps,  without  the  boards.  Ordinary  clothing  is  of 
no  use,  for  it  will  disappear  in  a  short  time.  The  sur- 
veyors wear  trousers  made  of  heavy  cotton  ticking, 
and  a  sort  of  pea-jacket  made  of  the  same.  This  or 
medium  cotton  duck  will  stand  wear,  and  although 
moisture  comes  through,  the  rains  do  not.  It  thickens 
wdien  wet,  and  turns  long  storms  better  than  any  thing 
except  oil-cloth.  A  supply  of  thick  flannel  shirts 
should  be  procured  without  fail,  and  flannel  under- 
clothes. A  vest  is  unnecessary,  and  instead  of  sus- 
penders the  pantaloons  are  kept  up  by  a  broad  belt, 
on  which  the  tin-cup  may  be  strung.  A  low,  round- 
crowned,  white  beaver  hat  is  much  worn,  but  perhaps 
a  light  cap  of  oiled  silk,  made  soft  and  impervious 
to  rain,  is  better.  For  the  feet,  moccasins  or  light 
brogans  made  of  good  leather,  and  plenty  of  woollen 
stockings.  In  the  wet  season,  cowhide  boots,  made 
of  good  but  not  heavy  leather,  and  very  large,  but  in 
the  shape  of  the  foot.  A  flint  and  steel  for  emergen- 
cies, and  matches  for  ordinary  use  to  strike  a  fire. 
Without  something  water-proof  around  them,  the 
matches  will  acquire  moisture  in  long  spells  of  wet 
weather.  If  you  carry  a  map  case,  they  may  be  put 
in  a  second  case,  around  which  the  map  is  rolled.  A 
belt  with  a  leather  pouch  and  a  buckle,  to  carry  the 
hatchet  in,  is  a  very  great  convenience ;  for  nothing 
is  so  likely  to  be  lost  as  a  hatchet.     We  were  three 


344  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

days  without  one  in  very  bad  weather,  having  dropped 
it  on  the  route. 

Tents  are  not  indispensable,  but  comfortable,  espe- 
cially along  the  shore,  and  in  very  warm  weather  when 
musquitoes  are  plenty. 

A  good,  large,  heavy  Mackinaw  blanket  is  beyond 
comparison  the  most  necessary  article  to  the  voyageur 
and  woodsman.  With  all  these  preparations,  the  lover 
of  exercise  and  adventure  may  count  upon  as  much 
enjoyment  on  a  trip  through  the  Lake  Superior  coun- 
try as  he  will  find  at  home.  If  he  is  badly  provided, 
he  will  be  inefficient  and  uneasy  —  will  suffer  many 
privations,  and  perhaps  injure  his  health. 


ON  THE  AGRICULTURAL  INTEREST  AND 
CONDITION  OF  OHIO, 

Delivered  in  the  Hall  of  Representatives  at  Columbus,  Jan.  29,  1845. 
[Ohio  Cultivator,  February  1845.] 


CORRESPONDENCE. 


To  Charles  Whittlesey,  Esq. 

Dkar  Sir  : — The  undersigned  Committee  were  appointed  at  a 
meeting  in  the  Hall  of  Representatives,  on  the  evening  of  the  27th 
inst.,  to  solicit  of  you  a  copy  of  your  able  and  excellent  address, 
on  the  subject  of  an  Agricultural  Survey  of  Ohio:  and  the  import- 
ance of  Agricultural  improvements  generally. 

Your  favorable  answer  will  be  thankfully  received. 
SEABURY  FORD,  ) 
S.   MEDARY,  \      Committee. 

J.  RIDGWAY,  J 

January  31,  1845. 

To  Mess-zs.  Ford,  Medary  and  Rid g way, 
Committee,  $c. 
Gentlemen  : — The  manuscript  copy  of  the  address  to  which 
your  note  of  yesterday  refers  is  placed  at  your  disposal. 

If  the  striking  facts  which  it  contains,  respecting  the  paramount 
importance  of   the  agricultural   interests  of  Ohio,  shall  serve  to 
awaken  and  concentrate  public  opinion,  I  shall  feel  amply  compen- 
sated for  the  labor  of  collecting  and  presenting  those  facts. 
Very  respectfully  and  truly  yours, 

CHARLES  WHITTLESEY. 

[Owing  to  the  crowded  state  of  our  columns,  we  are  compelled 
to  omit  the  introductory  portion  of  the  address,  in  which  the  author 
gives  a  particular  account  of  the  soil  and  the  farming  of  Hamilton 
county,  where  he  was  engaged  in  making  an  agricultural  survey, 
the  past  year,  under  the  auspices  of  the  County  Agricultural  So- 
ciety.— Ed.] 


346  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 


THE  ADDRESS. 

(The  first  paragraph  is  the  conclusion  of  remarks  on  the  county 
of  Hamilton.) 

I  have  stated  that  fifty  years  only  have  elapsed 
since  the  Miami  region  came  under  the  axe  and  plough, 
and  for  much  of  that  territory  it  may  be  said  that  it 
has  not  been  cultivated  over  thirty  years.  I  have 
given  a  particular  statement  of  the  kind  of  soil  and 
subsoil  which  causes  its  fertility,  and  therefore  it  will 
be  seen  that  nature  has  done  as  much  for  the  Miami 
country  as  can  be  expected  of  her  anywhere. 

By  personal  examination,  I  find  many  tracts,  and 
indeed  entire  farms,  in  this  highly  favored  situation, 
that  are  so  reduced  as  no  longer  to  afford  a  reason- 
able profit,  or  even  a  living  compensation  for  the  la- 
bor and  expense  of  cropping — to  say  nothing  of  the 
original  cost  or  present  value  of  the  land ;  I  mean 
that  a  man  would  not  secure  a  good  living,  by  work- 
ing it,  and  paying  the  taxes,  without  a  change  in  the 
system  of  cultivation. 

This  case  is  not  a  common  one,  but  it  is  a  common 
thing  to  see  a  farm  that  does  not  produce  more  than 
two-thirds  of  a  crop.  By  this  I  mean,  that  the  prim- 
itive capacity  of  the  soil,  uninjured  by  cultvation,  as 
all  soil  should  be,  would,  with  the  same  labor,  seed, 
and  taxation,  give  a  yield  one-third  greater.  It  is 
not  necessary  to  confine  ourselves  in  our  expectations 
to  this  standard.  Yet,  in  this  country,  most  of  our 
lands  are,  in  their  original  state,  good  enough.  W<8 
are  not  yet  compelled,  as  the  people  of  Flanders  an. I 
England  are,  to  create  soil.  W«  have  it  already  fur- 
nished, of  a  good  quality,  and  are  not  driven,  as  t hose- 
people  are,  to  devise  methods  of  making  barren   land 


AGRICULTURAL   INTEREST   OP   OHIO.  347 

productive.  It  will  be  time  enough  to  consider  that 
question  when  we  are  pushed  by  population  from  our 
present  happy  position,  where  deserts  are  not  known, 
to  the  sandy  wilds,  at  the  sources  of  the  Arkansas. 

The  barrenness  with  which  we  have  to  contend  is 
one  of  our  own  creating. 

COUNTY   AGRICULTURAL    SOCIETY   AND    SURVEY. 

It  was  with  a  realizing  sense  of  these  facts  before 
them,  and  with  the  striking  example  of  a  most  pro- 
ductive soil,  occasionally  broken  down  and  made 
worthless  within  the  life  and  remembrance  of  those 
who  had  enjoyed  its  original  profuseness,  that  the  far- 
mers of  Hamilton  began  to  seek  the  ways  and  means 
of  restoration. 

They  were  aware  that  the  first  step  to  be  taken 
was  of  an  intellectual  or  mental  character. 

That  it  was  necessary  to  set  the  minds  of  those  who 
make  farming  a  business,  at  work,  not  only  by  calling 
their  attention  to  the  fact  of  deterioration,  but  the 
causes  and  manner  by  which  it  has  been  brought 
about.  If  so  many  practical  men  can  be  brought  to 
reflect  upon  the  subject,  an  important  point  has  been 
gained ;  for  in  our  intelligent  community  the  action 
of  a  multitude  of  minds  directed  to  one  object  must 
result  in  something  valuable.  Next  in  consequence 
to  the  consideration  of  the  subject  is  the  mutual  com- 
munication of  the  results  or  conclusions  of  these 
minds.  After  this  information  is  collected  and  circu- 
lated, it  becomes  the  property  of  all ;  and  if  it  does 
not  bless  and  improve  them,  the  fault  is  clearly  their 
own.  But  while  it  is  not  in  their  possession,  they 
may  perhaps  be  called  to  an  account  for  their  igno- 
rance, but  certainly  not  for  the  wilful  abuse  of 
knowledge. 

The  initial  steps  to  encourage   investigations  of 


348  FUGITIVE     ESSAYS. 

this  kind  were  taken  by  the  legislature  in  providing  a 
general  lair  for  county  Agricultural  Associations  in 
18:31>. 

Although  this  law  is  in  many  respects  thought  to 
be  capable  of  improvement,  it  proves  to  be  sufficient 
for  the  organization  of  societies,  and  under  it  the 
Hamilton  County  Society  was  formed.  In  this  man- 
ner, something  visible  and  tangible  was  constituted  to 
attract  the  attention  and  respect  of  the  public,  and 
its  published  proceedings  will  show  what  has  been  ac- 
complished.* 

The  survey  or  examination  of  the  farms  of  the 
county  may  be  regarded  as  one  of  its  most  important 
movements.  This  having  been  completed  in  an  imper- 
fect manner,  the  society,  in  their  corporate  capacity, 
have  recommended,  by  a  formal  petition  to  the  legis- 
lature, the  extension  of  similar  surveys  to  all  the 
counties  of  the  State. 

A  committee  or  delegation  was  appointed  for  the 
purpose  of  presenting  this  petition,  and  suggesting 
arguments  in  favor  of  the  scheme. 

It  is  composed  of  Messrs.  Brown  and  Flinn,  mem- 
bers of  the  lower  house,  from  that  county,  of  Mr.  A. 
Randall,  a  director,  and  myself. 

It  is  as  a  member  of  that  commission,  and  by  its 
authority,  that  I  present  the  subject  this  evening  in 
this  form.  There  is,  I  am  aware,  among  farmers,  an 
aversion  to  what  is  called  Book  Farming,  and  to  book 
knowledge  on  the  subject  of  farming. 

This  is  not  strange,  because  soils,  climates,  and 
circumstances  are  so  diverse,  that  what  is  true  of  one 
place  may  be  wholly  false  and  erroneous  in  another. 
The  fault  in  such  cages  is  not,  however,  in  the  facts, 
but  the  application  of  them.     The  farmer  who  takes 

*  A  part  of  this  Report  relating  to  wheat,  as  published  iu  the 
Ohio  Statesman,  February  3d,  1845,  is  attached  to  this  Address. 


AGRICULTURAL   INTEREST    OF   OHIO.  349 

up  a  book  written  upon  cultivation  in  Flanders  may 
obey  its  direction  ever  so  implicitly,  and  may  not 
only  lose  his  crop,  but  injure  his  land.  It  requires 
discretion  in  the  application  of  knowledge  in  farming 
as  well  as  in  medicine  or  any  other  calling.  The  soil 
is  a  great  chemical  laboratory,  where  organic  changes 
are  continually  going  on.  The  physician,  also,  deals 
in  compounds  of  a  chemical  character  ;  most  of  them, 
when  misapplied,  are  injurious  and  even  fatal.  It  is 
not  perhaps  necessary  that  the  doctor  should  be  a 
chemist,  and  be  able  to  combine  and  originate  all  the 
medicines  he  uses ;  but  it  is  necessary  that  he  have 
a  certain  degree  of  information  respecting  their  na- 
ture, origin,  and  effects,  or  he  is  an  unsafe  man  to 
have  care  of  our  health  and  life.  He  must  at  least 
know  the  ingredients  and  their  properties.  Until  he 
has  this  knowledge,  he  is  incapable  of  exercising  an 
intelligent  discretion  in  the  application  of  remedies, 
and  it  will  be  an  equal  chance  whether  he  kills  or 
cures.  A  certain  portion  of  this  same  knowledge  is 
advantageous,  though  not  perhaps  as  necessary,  in 
farming.  Soil  is  supposed  to  be  formed  entirely  by 
chemical  action. 

ORIGIN   AND   COMPOSITION   OF    SOILS. 

The  earth,  as  it  came  naked  from  the  creation, 
was  destitute  of  vegetation.  It  is  supposed  to  have 
been  a  mere  mineral  mass,  containing,  it  is  true,  the 
powers  of  germination,  and  a  feeble  ability  to  support 
plants  when  germinated.  When  the  first  plant  was 
grown,  it  fell  into  decay,  containing  within  itself  vari- 
ous elements,  and  combinations  of  elements,  such  as 
oxygen,  carbon,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  and  various  acids, 
such  as  phosphoric,  acetic,  sulphuric,  and  earths  and  al- 
kalies, such  as  silex,  magnesia,  potash,  soda,  and  lime. 
All  these  have  been  extracted  from  the  air,  the  earth, 
30 


350  FUGITIVE  ESSAYS. 

and  the  waters  of  heaven,  and,  by  the  mysterious  pow- 
er of  vegetable  life,  fashioned  into  a  beautiful  object. 

The  stalk,  leaves,  and  fruit  of  the  plant,  with  so 
many  substances  and  compounds  of  substances,  are 
dissolved,  and  perish.  But  the  matter  of  which  it 
is  composed  does  not  perish,  it  only  seeks  new  com- 
binations. In  the  earth  on  which  it  rots,  there  are 
alkalies,  earths,  and  oxides,  by  which  the  acids  and 
gases  of  the  decaying  weed  have,  by  the  law  of  na- 
ture, a  strong  affinity ;  a  chemical  desire  so  powerful 
that  they  immediately  reunite.  When  burnt  lime  is 
exposed  to  the  atmosphere,  we  observe  that  it  soon 
acquires  carbonic  acid,  and  this  gas,  combining  with 
the  caustic  lime,  causes  mortar  to  harden  by  age. 
This  is  an  example  of  chemical  affinity. 

The  operation  is  silent,  and  apparently  weak  and 
trifling.  But  it  is  by  a  knowledge  of  this  property 
of  lime  that  mortars  are  made,  and  by  means  of  mor- 
tars that  edifices,  aqueducts,  and  fortifications  are 
constructed  as  solid  and  lasting  as  the  natural  rock. 

In  my  opinion,  there  is  no  material  difference  in 
the  mineral  constituents  of  soil  in  its  primitive  state 
and  the  subsoil  or  earth  beneath  it ;  that  the  re  MOD 
why  the  surface  matter  is  more  fertile  than  that  at 
the  depth  of  10,  12,  or  18  inches,  is  the  chemical 
change  that  has  been  wrought  by  vegetation,  air, 
heat,  frost,  and  moisture.  The  solid  particles  are 
furnished  by  the  earth ;  the  acid  and  gaseous  mate- 
rials by  the  plant ;  and  these  being  brought  in  con- 
tact, a  lively  chemical  action  commences.  By  this 
means,  the  soil  which  is  naturally  red,  yellow,  or 
white,  gradually  becomes  blacker ;  where  it  was  com- 
pact, if  the  operation  is  well  effected,  it  acquires  po- 
rosity and  looseness. 

This  being  the  manmer  in  which  soil  or  vegetable 
mould  was  originally  separated  from  subsoil,  or  mere 


AGRICULTURAL   INTEREST   OF   OHIO.  351 

earth,  we  have  only  to  imitate  nature  to  produce  it 
ourselves. 

Such  is  the  theory  of  manures.  There  are  soils 
that  are  radically  deficient  in  the  alkaline  bases  ;  for 
these,  vegetable  manures  would  be  of  little  avail,  be- 
cause some  of  the  chemical  elements  are  wanting. 
There  are  others  where  the  alkalies  and  salts  are 
abundant,  but  they  want  vegetable  matter.  Furnish 
it,  and  a  luxuriant  crop  rewards  the  husbandman.  It 
is,  therefore,  upon  a  judicious  mixture  of  these  sub- 
stances that  fertility  depends.  The  exposition  of 
these  phenomena  is  book  knowledge.  The  application 
of  chemistry,  showing  how  soils  are  constituted,  and 
why  certain  ingredients  are  necessary,  is  book  farm- 
ing, or  science  brought  to  the  aid  of  labor. 

The  experience  of  one  is  made  accessible  to  every 
one  else,  by  the  means  of  printed  books,  and  the  mis- 
fortune is  that  they  are  not  more  numerous  and  more 
cheap. 

A  farmer,  with  a  soil  already  sufficiently  calca- 
reous, has  no  need  of  lime,  and  if  he  expends  his 
money  or  work  in  carting  it  to  his  premises,  will  gain 
nothing  by  the  operation,  and  may  produce  a  perma- 
nent injury  to  his  soil.  Applying  lime  to  every  kind 
of  land  would  be  like  giving  calomel  in  every  disease. 
It  might  with  as  much  propriety  be  said  that  the 
book  learning,  which  shows  the  powers  and  benefits 
of  that  medicine,  was  useless  or  unimportant,  as  to 
speak  thus  of  those  treatises  on  agricultural  chemis- 
try which  explain   the  nature  of  soils. 

PROCESS    OF    EXHAUSTION. 

The  first  settlers  of  the  West  appear  to  have  re- 
garded our  rich  lands  as  possessed  of  inexhaustible 
fertility.  The  people  of  the  new  counties  of  Ohio, 
where  the  process  of  cultivation  has  not  been  of  long 


352  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

duration,  still  take  little  interest  in  agriculture  as  a 
science.  Those  who  perform  the  severe  labor  of  clear- 
ing the  land  are  impatient  to  receive  their  rei 
and  apply  their  remaining  energies  to  the  work  of 
drawing  from  the  soil  the  most  rapid  succession  of 
crops.  The  decline  is  so  gradual  as  to  be  impercep- 
tible for  a  short  number  of  years,  and  so  long  as  the 
bounty  of  nature  holds  out,  her  resources  are  drawn 
upon  freely. 

But  the  old  settlers,  who  have  survived  half  a  cen- 
tury of  active  life,  are  enabled  to  compare  the  extremes, 
and  to  them  the  contrast  between  the  primitive  rich- 
ness of  their  farms  and  their  present  power  of  pro- 
duction is  capable  of  being  observed.  Those  who  re- 
member when  corn-land  produced  seventy-five  bushels 
per  acre,  and  still  live  to  see  the  same  land,  with  the 
same  labor,  give  only  forty  bushels,  realize  the  differ- 
ence between  a  state  of  exhaustion  and  a  state  of 
original  vigor.  This  difference  being  taken  from  the 
profits,  and  not  from  the  entire  product,  becomes  still 
more  striking. 

The  fact  of  depreciation  is,  therefore,  well  estab- 
lished as  a  matter  of  evidence,  but  the  manner  hoio 
it  is  brought  about  is  not  always  so  well  understood. 
By  throwing  light  upon  this  sinking  process,  the  ab- 
stract idea  will  become  more  sensible,  and  assume  a 
prominence  in  the  mind,  equal  to  its  importance  in 
practice. 

Only  about  fifteen  per  cent,  of  the  matter  of  the 
western  soils  produces  any  direct  effect  upon  v» 
tion.  About  eighty-five  per  cent,  is  mere  sand  and 
clay,  and  only  serves  to  retain  moisture,  and  supply 
a  foundation  or  basis  for  the  plant.  Of  the  fifteen 
per  cent.,  there  is  in  the  best  BOlll  an  ftverage  bi  ten 
or  twelve   per  cent,  ve  Matter,  but  only  about 

one-half  of  this  is  in  an  active  state,  say  six  per  cent. 


AGRICULTURAL  INTEREST  OF  OHIO.  353 

There  is  from  one  to  three  per  cent,  of  lime  in  the 
state  of  carbonate,  sulphate  or  phosphate.  The  soil 
actually  contains  a  minute  portion  of  potash,  for  we 
find  it  in  the  ashes  of  timber,  and  it  must  come  from 
the  earth.  So  plants  and  trees  contain  magnesia  and 
soda,  and  sometimes  the  oxides  of  iron  and  manganese. 

The  iron  is  generally  appreciable  in  quantity,  and 
makes  its  appearance  in  the  analysis,  but  it  is  difficult 
to  detect  the  potash,  soda,  and  magnesia,  the  quantity 
is  so  small.  All  the  valuable  mineral  constituents 
amount  to  only  three  per  cent.,  and  the  vegetable  to 
six,  making  nine  per  cent.,  from  which  all  the  earthy 
supplies  of  vegetation  are  to  be  drawn. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  extract  all  the  materials  of 
this  nine  per  cent,  of  the  soil,  in  order  to  render  it 
unfruitful,  or  even  to  exhaust  one  of  them — for  if  we 
diminish  them,  or  one  of  them,  so  as  materially  to 
change  their  relations,  we  have  effected  a  disorganiza- 
tion of  the  soil. 

The  depth  stirred  by  the  plough  is  ordinarily  four 
inches,  sometimes  five  and  even  six  inches.  From 
this  six  inches  of  depth,  or  from  nine  per  cent,  of  it, 
we  draw  annually  of  hay,  grain  or  corn,  from  two  to 
four  tons  of  vegetable  substance,  or  say  on  an  average 
6000  pounds.  How  great  a  portion  of  this  product 
is  derived  from  the  atmosphere,  and  how  much  from 
the  earth,  is  not  a  well-settled  point.  But  if  one-half 
is  taken  from  the  soil,  it  amounts  in  thirty  years  to 
90,000  pounds,  or  forty-five  tons  of  its  very  life-blood 
and  sustenance. 

The  weight  of  a  covering  of  earth,  measuring  six 
inches  in  depth,  will  vary  from  1000  to  1280  tons  per 
acre,  and  nine  per  cent,  of  the  same  to  90  and  115 
tons,  of  which  the  forty-five  tons  taken  up  by  the 
plants,  in  thirty  years,  amounts  to  fifty  and  thirty- 
three  per  cent. 
30* 


354  FUGITIVE  ESSAYS. 

I  give  this  more  by  way  of  illustration  than  as  well 
determined  proportions,  although  my  opinion  is  that 
they  are  not  far  from  the  truth.  It  is  therefore  easy 
to  perceive  how  a  soil  is  exhausted  by  cropping,  and 
to  realize  that  what  ruins  it  in  thirty  years  must  do 
one-thirtieth  part  of  the  injury  in  one  year. 

PROCESS   OF   RESTORATION. 

It  also  shows  that,  as  the  decay  is  comparatively 
slow,  requiring  time  and  continual  cultivation  to  effect 
it,  so  the  process  of  restoration  cannot  be  brought  to 
perfection  at  once,  but  will  likewise  require  the  lapse 
of  time.  This  follows  from  the  chemical  action  which 
is  necessary  in  order  to  produce  a  change  in  the  veg- 
etables and  alkalies  present. 

If  the  vegetable  part  is  most  deficient,  and  we  re- 
sort to  the  usual  mode  of  spreading  manure  upon  the 
soil,  it  requires  some  months  for  this  action  to  com- 
mence, for  the  decomposition  to  be  effected,  which 
precedes  the  new  compositions  that  are  to  be  formed. 
It  may  require  years  for  the  formation  of  all  the  com- 
pounds that  successively  appear  in  the  soil  after  the 
application  of  good  manure.  This  merely  verifies  a 
general  rule  of  nature,  that  the  reverse  process  of 
restoration  is  not  more  rapid  than  the  direct  one  of 
depreciation.  And  this  principle,  well  considered,  im- 
presses the  fact  indelibly  upon  the  mind,  that  it  is 
easier  to  maintain  than  to  restore.  That  it  is  not 
only  easier,  but  more  profitable,  to  preserve  a  soil  in 
its  original  strength,  enabling  it  to  produce  its  maxi- 
mum all  the  while,  than  to  suffer  it  to  run  down,  lose 
the  product,  and  then  restore  it,  is  a  position  that 
does  not  require  an  argument.  There  are  methods 
of  manuring  which  are  more  rapid  than  others,  and 
more  profitable,  but  the  maxim  I  have  just  laid  down 
should  he  remembered,  that  quick  and  powerful  stim- 


AGRICULTURAL  INTEREST  OF  OHIO.  355 

ulants  are  soon  themselves  exhausted,  and  cease  to 
operate.  ' 

It  would  be  too  tedious,  if  our  discourse  was  pro- 
longed so  as  to  present  in  detail  the  theory  of  vegeta- 
tion and  conversion  of  manures,  the  analysis  of  various 
soils,  and  of  the  various  vegetables  that  are  produced 
upon  them.  The  examination  of  this  subject  would 
show  a  correspondence  between  the  composition  of  the 
soil,  and  the  nature  and  luxuriance  of  its  productions. 
It  would  explain  why  some  plants,  as  clover  for  in- 
stance, when  turned  under  as  a  green  crop,  produces 
more  fertility  than  buckwheat  or  corn-stalks. 

These  investigations  are  purely  chemical,  and  have 
been  particularly  brought  about  by  the  influence  of 
agricultural  associations. 

ASSOCIATIONS "  THE  LONDON    BOARD   OF  AGRICULTURE." 

The  most  noted  society  of  this  kind,  and  one  which 
may  be  regarded  as  laying  the  foundation  of  British 
husbandry,  now  reduced  to  a  science,  was  the  "  Lon- 
don Board  of  Agriculture,"  established  by  an  Act  of 
Parliament,  May  17,  1793,  and  furnished  with  £3000 
a  year  from  the  Treasury.  At  the  close  of  the  Amer- 
ican Revolution,  the  island  of  Great  Britain  was  esti- 
mated to  contain  60,000,000  of  acres,  exclusive  of  ci- 
ties, roads,  lakes,  &c,  of  which  only  30,000,000,  or 
one-half  were  in  cultivation. 

Sir  John  Sinclair  had  at  his  own  expense  travelled 
in  Flanders,  Germany,  France,  and  generally  through 
Europe,  and  observed,  that  for  their  surface  those 
countries  were  producing  much  more  largely  than 
England. 

He  proposed  an  inquiry  into  the  causes  of  the 
striking  difference  that  existed  in  the  agricultural  con- 
dition of  the  Island  and  the  Continent,  and  broached 
the  project  to  the  ministry.     He  was  told,  that  what- 


356  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

ever  related  to  commerce  and  acquisition  of  territory, 
to  the  army  and  navy,  would  meet  with  a  ready  sup- 
port in  the  cabinet,  but  they  never  had,  and  probably 
never  would,  bestow  that  attention  upon  agriculture. 

It  was  expected  that  the  ministry  regarding  hus- 
bandry as  a  mere  handicraft,  upon  a  level  with  the 
excavation  of  a  cellar,  or  the  raising  of  an  embank- 
ment, would  not  descend  to  consider  the  proposed 
scheme.  Although  George  III.  had  bestowed  some 
attention  upon  practical  farming,  the  ministry  sup- 
posed it  would  take  care  of  itself,  requiring  only  the 
requisite  number  of  laborers.  They  regarded  the 
muscles  of  the  human  arm,  the  strength  of  horses,  the 
plough,  the  mattock,  and  the  spade,  as  constituting 
the  sum  total  of  agriculture,  and  that  intelligence  and 
science  had  no  more  to  do  with  its  improvement,  than 
it  had  with  excavating  the  cellar,  or  piling  earth  into 
the  embankment. 

Mr.  Pitt  was  not  really  for  the  project,  unless  the 
House  manifested  some  desire  for  its  adoption.  Mr. 
Dundas  took  favorable  ground,  and  after  much  per- 
suasion, and  even  importunity,  Sir  John  Sinclair  at 
last  attained  his  object.  In  arguing  the  question  be- 
fore the  officers  of  government,  he  proposed  to  gain 
six  principal  ends,  of  which  I  think  three  are  appli- 
cable to  this  country  at  this  time. 

1st.  The  Central  Board  would  be  a  general  mag- 
azine of  agricultural  knowledge.  2d.  It  should  be 
their  duty  to  collect  and  circulate  this  knowledge. 
3d.  As  a  part  of  this  duty,  to  cause  a  survey  of 
England  to  be  made  by  counties,  giving  I  statistical 
view  of  its  present  state,  wants,  and  ameliorations. 
The  Board  being  organized,  composed  of  the  principal 
councillors  of  State,  some  eminent  clergymen,  and 
thirty  members,  their  first  business  was  the  collection, 
by  local  agents,  of  the  statistics  and  agricultural  con- 


AGRICULTURAL   INTEREST   OF   OHIO.  357 

dition  of  the  kingdom,  which  was  effected  by  counties, 
and  printed  in  about  two  years. 

They  next  laid  the  foundation  of  Agricultural 
Chemistry,  by  procuring  from  the  father  of  chemical 
science,  Sir  Humphrey  Davy,  a  course  of  Lectures 
and  analysis. 

There  had  been  associations  for  the  benefit  of 
agriculture  in  the  kingdom  before.  In  Scotland,  as 
early  as  1723,  the  society  of  "Improvers  in  Agricul- 
ture" was  organized,  and  embraced,  for  a  time,  many 
valuable  members.  In  1749,  in  Ireland,  the  Dublin 
Agricultural  Society  was  formed  and  received  a  grant 
of  <£10,000  from  the  Irish  treasury,  for  the  promotion 
of  its  objects.  The  "Bath  and  West  of  England" 
Society  arose  in  1777,  and  the  Highland  Society  of 
Scotland  in  1784.  But  all  these  associations  were  lim- 
ited, comparatively  powerless  and  temporary.  The 
London  Board  was  composed  of  men  whose  interest 
in  the  cause  was  intense,  and  by  a  connection  with  the 
government,  they  were  enabled  to  command  means  to 
accomplish  their  designs.  The  consequence  was  that, 
in  1796,  the  Board  report  that,  22,350,000  acres  of 
the  land  had  been  reclaimed,  from  a  waste  or  unpro7 
ductive  state,  and  added  to  the  wealth  of  the  nation. 
Its  value  was  estimated  at  £905,215,500  sterling. 

The  Board  demonstrated  that  the  fears  then  pre- 
valent of  over  population  were  without  foundation,  as 
they  might  and  had  been  overthrown  by  over  produc- 
tion of  the  soil. 

This  striking  result  in  England  was  not  all  the 
advantage  resulting  to  that  country  and  to  other  na- 
tions, from  the  labors  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture, 
which  continued  until  1819.  That  Board  gave  rise 
to  works  especially  devoted  to  analysis  of  soils,  grain, 
straw,  and  all  vegetable  substances ;  attracted  the  at- 
tention of  the  agricultural  world  to  the  subject  of 


358  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

improving  soils  ;  engaged  chemists  in  the  work  of  ex- 
amination of  manures,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  vast 
improvements. 

Agriculture  is  an  art  which  has  never  been  known 
to  recede,  but  always  to  advance  and  improve. 

The  Egyptians,  when  they  cultivated  the  valley 
of  the  Nile,  had  their  ploughs,  their  yokes  for  cattle, 
and  their  thongs  of  leather,  to  attach  the  team  to  the 
plough.  But  their  contrivances  were  rude  and  cum- 
brous. The  Greeks  of  the  time  of  Homer  were  prac- 
tical farmers,  and  had  improved  upon  the  implements 
of  the  Egyptians. 

So  the  Romans  of  the  days  of  Hesiod  had  ad- 
vanced upon  the  Greeks,  the  Germans  of  the  Rhine 
upon  the  Romans,  and  the  English  of  the  last  century 
gave  agriculture  an  impulse  over  the  Flemish  and 
German  standard.  In  America,  this  progress  is  in 
my  opinion  to  be  extended,  and  another  step  taken 
towards  perfection  —  particularly  in  implements. 

IMPORTANCE   OP   AGRICULTURE  —  STATISTICS. 

May  it  not  be  said  that,  hitherto,  and  even  now, 
the  general  government  and  the  States  indulge  in  too 
much  indifference  respecting  the  advance  of  agricul- 
ture. It  is,  in  the  language  of  the  petitioners  whom 
I  represent,  the  basis  of  every  other  interest.  It  is 
the  principal  and  reliable  source  of  taxation  among 
the  States.  In  Ohio  the  revenue  is  derived  almost 
entirely  from  real  estate.  The  commercial  interest 
represents  merely  the  surplus  of  the  agricultural. 
The  property  engaged  in  manufactures  is  limited, 
compared  with  that  invested  in  the  soil. 

The  census  of  1840  gives  $82,201,268  as  the 
capital  engaged  in  forwarding,  in  the  trade  of  mer- 
chants, lumber  and  butchering. 


AGRICULTURAL    INTEREST    OF    OHIO.  859 

The  capital  engaged  in  manufactures  is  repre- 
sented as  $14,905,257. 

The  products  of  the  soil  in  Ohio,  for  the  same 
year,  were  as  follows : 

Wheat,          16,571,661  bush,  at  60  cts.  $9,942,996 

Barley,              212,440     «      "  40    "  84,976 

Oats,             14,393,103     "      "  20    "  2,878,620 

Rye,                   814,205     "      "  40    "  325,682 

Buckwheat,       633,139     «      "  30    "  189,941 

Corn,            33,668,144     "      "  30    "  10,100,443 

Potatoes,        5,805,021     *      "  20    "  1,161,004 

Tobacco,         5,942,275  pounds      3    «  178,268 

Hay,               1,022,037    tons      $6    \  6,132,222 

Hemp  Flax,          9,080      "     $100  908,000 

Hops,                   62,195  pounds    10  cts.  6,219 


$31,908,371 


The  above  includes  only  the  crops  proper  for 
1840,  and  not  for  1844.  I  take  the  produce  of  the 
former  year,  because  we  have  the  official  report  as  a 
basis  as  to  the  quantity,  and  I  have  given  the  prices 
below,  rather  than  above,  the  market.  The  wheat 
crop  of  1844  was  probably  less  than  that  of  1840, 
on  account  of  a  bad  season,  just  as  it  arrived  at  ma- 
turity. But  the  general  increase  of  production  in 
Ohio,  over  that  above  given,  may  be  safely  put  at 
one-fifth,  or  20  per  cent. 

There  are  some  important  additions  to  be  made  to 
this  table  of  articles,  the  result  of  agriculture,  not 
properly  termed  crops. 


Products  of  Orchards,  for  1840, 

$475,271 

"           Dairies,               " 

1,848,869 

"           Gardens,             " 

97,606 

"          Nurseries,          " 

19,707 

soo 

FUGITIVE  ESSAYS. 

Wine, 

11,524  gallons  at  $1 

$11,524 

Silk, 

4,317  pounds  "      5 

21,585 

Wood, 

272,529  cords     "     2 

545,058 

Sugar, 

6,363,386  pounds  "     4  cents, 

254,535 

Wool, 

3,685,315      "       «    30     " 

1,005,594 

Wax, 

38,139       "       "   25     * 

9,534 

$4,289,283 

This  sum,  in  addition  to  the  value  of  crops,  gives 
$36,197,654. 

To  this  should  be  added  the  annual  increase  in 
value  of  animals,  to  wit : 

430,527  Horses  and  Mules,  at  $50  $21,526,350 

1,217,874  Cattle,                     "     20  24,357,480 

2,099,945  Hogs,                      "       3  6,299,835 

2,028,401  Sheep,                     "       1  2,028,401 


$54,212,066 


If  the  annual  proceeds  of  the  live  stock  of  the 
farm  is  put  at  one-fourth  the  value,  and  mj  estimate 
of  that  value  is  correct,  the  yearly  product  would  have 
been,  in  1840,  $13,553,016. 

This,  item  united  with  the  annual  value  of  crops 
and  agricultural  products,  makes  $49,750,670. 

But  there  are  many  things  not  included  in  this 
calculation,  such  as  the  value  of  pasturage,  straw, 
turnips,  poultry,  feathers,  &c,  which  would  swell  the 
sum  considerably. 

And  although  the  crop  of  wheat  was  this  year 
greatly  injured,  and  the  crop  of  corn  rather  light,  and 
the  product  of  orchards  diminished,  there  m\\<\  be  for 

\  a  materia]  increase  in  production  over  1840. 

I  think  it  would  be  safe  to  add  B0  per  cent  on 
100  Hint,  to  the  estimate  just  given,  which  would 


AGRICULTURAL   INTEREST   OP   OHIO.  361 

give  for  the  agricultural  products  of  Ohio  at  this  time 
$56,990,197. 

This  sum,  it  will  be  remembered,  does  not  fully 
represent  the  agricultural  interest  or  capital,  but  the 
gross  production  of  that  capital. 

There  are  upon  the  tax-list  of  this  State,  for  1842, 
20,260,526  acres  of  land,  of  which  the  value  per  acre 
cannot  be  less  than  five  dollars. 

It  is  not  easy  to  make  an  estimate  of  the  number 
of  farm  houses,  buildings,  and  implements  in  the  State, 
or  their  value. 

In  four  rural  townships  of  Hamilton  county,  which 
in  1840  contained  a  population  of  7411,  there  are  but 
243  houses  returned  for  taxation,  or  about  one  to  thir- 
ty inhabitants. 

By  law,  buildings  below  a  certain  value  are  not 
put  on  the  duplicate,  which  deprives  us  of  information 
from  that  source. 

By  taking  the  average  price  of  land  in  Ohio,  as 
established  by  the  Board  of  Equalization,  $3,68,  we 
can  find  the  value  of  lands  as  they  stand  upon  the 
grand  levy,  and  deducting  this  sum  from  the  value  of 
houses-  and  lands,  we  have  $8,835,492,  representing 
buildings,  principally  farm  houses.  But  the  method 
of  assessment,  like  that  of  lands,  places  these  build- 
ings far  below  their  real  value.  And  it  should  also 
be  remembered,  that  barns  and  out-houses  are  omitted, 
and  manufactures  included. 

I  think  it  reasonable,  however,  to  multiply  the 
amount  stated  on  the  duplicate  by  four,  and  call  the 
product  the  real  value  of  farm  houses,  barns,  out- 
houses and  implements,  which  will  be  equal  to  $35,- 
341,968,  or  a  little  over  $100  to  each  individual  engaged 
in  agriculture. 

The  lands  of  Ohio,  aside  from  town  lots,  at  $5,00 
per  acre,  are  worth  $101,302,630.  Of  the  live  stock, 
31 


6WA  FUGITIVE  ESSAYS. 

I  regard  one-fourth  as  annual  increase,  and  three- 
fourths  as  capital  producing  this  increase.  The  agri- 
cultural investment  in  Ohio  may  be  considered  as  the 
aggregate  of  lands,  buildings,  implements,  and  three- 
fourths  of  the  stock. 

My  estimates  are,  of  course,  only  rough  approxi- 
mations to  the  truth,  but  these  three  items  make  a 
gross  sum  of 

f  Stock, $40,647,855 

Lands,      ------     101,302,630 

Houses,  &c,  -        -        -        -  35,341,968 


$177,292,453 

The  annual  product  of  which,  according  to  the  fore- 
going estimates,  is  $56,990,197. 

The  united  capital  of  merchants,  forwarders, 
butchers,  of  lumbermen  and  all  manufacturers,  we 
have  given  at  $59,106,520,  and  adding  one-fifth  for 
increase  to  the  present  time,  it  gives  $90,927,824 
capital  in  trade  and  manufactures,  against  $177,292,- 
453  invested  in  agriculture.  In  other  and  more  com- 
mercial States,  the  disproportion  would  not  be  so 
striking,  but  still,  throughout  the  United  States,  the 
agricultural  interest,  measured  by  dollars  and  cents,  or 
by  the  numbers  engaged,  or  its  importance  to  the  na- 
tion, stands  above  any  other,  if  not  above  every  other, 
department  of  investment  and  industry. 

In  1840,  when  the  population  of  Ohio  was  1,519,- 
467,  her  agricultural  laborers  numbered  272,599.  At 
the  same  time,  the  persons  engaged  in  all  the  other 
business,  callings,  trades  or  professions,  amounted 
to  only  84,458.  If  the  farmers  have  increased  in 
proportion  with  the  population,  they  now  number 
about  323,000. 


agricultural  interest  op  ohio.  363 

gen.  Washington's   opinion  —  general  government. 

Has  the  legislation  of  the  country,  in  favor  of  this 
overruling  interest,  been  proportioned  to  its  magni- 
tude ? 

We  have  witnessed  the  extreme  attention  of  the 
National  Congress  and  of  the  State  Legislatures  to 
the  subject  of  commerce.  From  1789,  to  this  day, 
the  Federal  Government  has  not  only  been  interested, 
but  agitated,  and  that  almost  without  cessation,  by  dif- 
ferent schemes  for  the  promotion  of  manufactures. 

In  the  last  annual  address  of  President  Washing- 
ton, wherein  he  lays  down  the  great  principles  that 
should  govern  our  statesmen,  he  does  not  forget  to 
recommend  the  protection  of  agriculture,  as  well  as 
trade  and  manufactures,  in  the  following  terms : 

"  It  will  not  be  doubted  that,  with  reference  to 
either  individual  or  national  welfare,  agriculture  is  of 
primary  importance.  In  proportion  as  nations  ad- 
vance in  population,  and  other  circumstances  of  ma- 
turity, this  truth  becomes  more  apparent,  and  renders 
the  cultivation  of  the  soil  more  and  more  an  object 
of  public  patronage.  Institutions  for  promoting  it, 
grow  up,  supported  by  the  public  purse,  and  to  what 
object  can  it  be  dedicated  with  greater  propriety  ? 

"  Among  the  means  which  have  been  employed  to 
this  end,  none  had  been  attended  with  greater  suc- 
cess than  the  establishment  of  Boards,  composed  of 
proper  characters,  charged  with  collecting  and  diffus- 
ing information,  and  enabled  by  premiums  and  small 
pecuniary  aids  to  encourage  and  assist  a  spirit  of  dis- 
covery and  improvement.  This  species  of  establish- 
ment contributes  doubly  to  the  increase  of  improve- 
ment by  stimulating  to  enterprise  and  experiment, 
and  by  drawing  to  a  common  centre  the  results  every 
where  of  individual  skill  and  observation — and  spread- 


364 


FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 


ing  them  thence  over  the  whole  nation.  Experience, 
accordingly,  has  shown,  that  they  are  very  cheap  in- 
struments of  immense  national  benefits."— Journals 
Zd  and  4th  Congress,  page  69. 

What  has  been  done  in  pursuance  of  this  recom- 
mendation, relating  to  the  soil,  and  what  has  not  been 
done  respecting  those  that  refer  to  the  other  great 
callings  ?  Is  there  less  constitutional  power  to  favor 
the  greatest  interest  of  the  country  than  for  those 
which  are  subordinate?  When  has  there  been  in 
Congress  any  direct  legislation,  avowed  and  intended 
to  protect  the  farmer,  that  was  not  subordinate  and 
subservient,  or  at  least  incidental,  to  the  other  branches? 
The  capital  invested  in  commerce  in  the  United  States, 
is  estimated  at      ...  $262,000,000 

In  manufactures  at  ...       267,000,000 

For  both  .         .         $529,000,000 

How  many  laws  have  been  passed  to  protect  ma- 
nufactures and  encourage  .  commerce  ?  The  annual 
product  of  the  United  States,  in  the  article  of  veg- 
etable food  for  man,  without  including  any  thing  else, 
is  $624,518,510.  The  value  of  horses,  mules,  cattle, 
sheep,  and  swine,  is  $640,000,000,  and  adding  all 
real  products  of  the  land,  we  may  safely  put  the  grand 
aggregate  at  $1,000,000,000,  or  double  the  capital 
employed  in  trade  and  fabrication.  Has  this  subject 
been  so  long  overlooked  because  the  farmer  needs  no 
encouragement  ? 

The  323,000  men,  engaged  in  cultivation  in  this 
State,  produce,  according  to  my  estimate,  $6^,990,197. 

Their  wages,  at  $15  per  month,  would  amount  to 
$58,140,000. 

The  interest  upon  the  property  invested,  $177,- 
292,453,  at  six  per  cent.,  is  $10,637,547.     Whe 
the  general  profit  on  agricultural  investments  ?     It  is 


AGRICULTURAL  INTEREST  OF  OHIO.       365 

evident,  without  entering  into  a  calculation,  that  if 
farms  and  farming  paid  a  fair  interest  upon  money, 
the  capitalist  would  invest  money  in  the  business. 
But  he  does  not — he  prefers  trade  or  manufactures ; 
and  experience  shows  that  he  realizes  more  from  such 
an  employment  of  his  money  than  he  would  by  tilling 
the  soil. 

We  have  then  this  anomaly,  the  most  important 
occupation  of  man,  that  in  which  more  persons  are 
employed,  will  only  bear  an  investment  of  labor,  not 
of  money  capital.  We  find  the  legislation  of  the 
country  active,  sensitive,  untiring,  to  make  this  money 
capital  yield  a  high  profit,  but  find  no  statute  of  Con- 
gress, having  for  its  object  a  direct,  exclusive,  par- 
ticular application  to  the  profit  on  this  great  labor 
capital. 

Much  has  been  done  for  it  under  other  names,  as 
an  incidental  affair;  but  have  we  not  imitated  too 
closely  the  indifference  of  Mr.  Pitt  and  his  colleagues, 
in  1793  ?  What  encouragement  does  it  require  ?  The 
general  government  having  neglected  the  subject  in  a 
great  degree,  this  question  is  more  directly  applied  to 
the  States. 

But  to  answer  it,  consultation  and  reflection  are 
both  requisite. 

DUTY    OF    THE    STATE    GOVERNMENT. 

The  diffusion  of  cheap  practical  books  would  give 
agriculture  a  character  and  an  impulse.  It  would 
tend  to  make  the  calling  more  elevated,  because  more 
intellectual. 

Agricultural  schools,  where  labor  and  learning 
mingle  their  benefits,  is  another  mode  of  advancing 
the  object. 

A  more  full  analysis  of  all  kinds  of  soil,  and  in 
connection  with  that  work,  the  analysis  of  all  vegetable 
31* 


366  FUGITIVE  ESSAYS. 

products,  to  discover  the  mineral  and  gaseous  constitu- 
ents, they  take  up  from,  and  give  back  to  the  earth. 

Sir  Humphrey  Davy,  Chaptal,  and  Liebig,  have 
done  much,  and  the  American  chemists  extended  the 
subject,  but  without  a  special  devotion  to  this  single 
branch  of  chemical  investigation,  we  cannot  expect  a 
full  knowledge  of  it. 

The  subject  of  manures,  not  only  in  regard  to  their 
effects,  but  their  cheapness,  requires  more  examina- 
tion and  experiment,  and  every  country  must  make 
them  for  itself.  Results  obtained  in  Germany  may 
not  answer  in  Ohio. 

Agricultural  statistics  are  indispensable,  and  in 
this  branch  the  general  government  did  the  country 
much  service  in  the  completion  of  the  census  of  1840. 

A  general  interchange  of  the  experience  of  prac- 
tical farmers  appears  to  me,  for  its  expense,  the  most 
useful  of  all  modes  of  advancing  the  state  of  our  til- 
lage. There  are  men,  who  with  the  same  soil,  labor 
and  expense,  produce  double  the  surplus  of  others. 
The  former  class  of  persons,  by  a  trifling  but  inces- 
sant application  of  some  kind  of  manure,  maintain 
the  soil  in  its  original  strength.  Their  crops  are  sure 
and  heavy.  Another  drains  the  soil,  until  the  crop 
falls  away  visibly.  He  cannot  cease  to  till  it,  for  he 
would  starve.  He  cannot  manure  it  all  at  once  for 
want  of  means.  If  he  goes  on  plowing,  sowing,  and 
reaping,  as  usual,  he  falls  behind  annually  in  hi 
penses,  the  tax-gatherer  crowds  him,  and  the  surplus 
of  his  farm  is  no  longer  to  be  found. 

Let  every  farmer  in  the  State  relapse  into  this 
condition,  and  where  is  the  wealth  and  happiness  of 
our  people? 

Let  every  farmer  strive  to  pass  this  fatal  point, 
where  the  cost  of  cultivation  is  just  equal  to  the  pro- 
ceeds, and  what  a  vast  amount  of  surplus  would  be  at 
our  command. 


AGRICULTURAL   INTEREST   OF   OHIO.  367 

I  venture  to  prolong  this  discourse  to  give  an  example : 

There  are  not  far  from  1,700,000  acres  of  land  in  cul- 
tivation, in  wheat,  in  the  State  of  Ohio.  In  Hamilton 
county,  the  average  yield  of  upland  wheat  per  acre  is 
16J  bushels,  and  the  average  price  at  market,  for  the 
past  four  years,  is  67  J  cents.  The  ordinary  cost  of  culti- 
vation, harvesting,  &c,  for  wheat,  I  fix  at  from  $7,25 
to  $7,50,  or  say  the  value  of  11  bushels  at  67  J  cents, 
which  is  $7,42. 

If  the  yield  is  no  greater  in  other  parts  of  the 
State  than  in  Hamilton  county,  there  is  a  surplus  of 
only  4  J  bushels,  or  $2,70,  which  is  not  equal  to  the 
interest  upon  the  land,  implements,  and  stock,  re- 
quired for  its  cultivation. 

Our  soil  is  capable  of  producing  from  twenty  to 
twenty-five  bushels  of  wheat,  and  with  extraordinary 
attention  thirty  bushels.  But  with  merely  good  farm- 
ing, every  where  introduced,  the  same  land  and  the 
same  labor  will  add  five  bushels  per  acre  to  the  crop 
of  Ohio,  —  or  8,500,000  bushels,  of  the  value  of 
$5,737,500 — this,  without  including  other  crops. 

Now,  I  find  by  the  current  report  of  the  Auditor  of 
State,  that  the  property  of  the  State  pays  a  tax  of 
$2,340,663,  for  all  public  purposes,  and  this  assessment 
is  considered  as  unusually  heavy,  almost  oppressive. 

According  to  my  estimate,  the  wheat  growers  of 
the  State  alone  might,  by  careful  cultivation,  with 
the  same  quantity  of  land,  enlarge  their  surplus  to 
more  than  double  this  sum. 

In  1843,  the  wheat  crop  of  the  United  States  was 
estimated,  by  Mr.  Ellsworth,  at  100,310,856  bushels, 
of  which  Ohio  furnished  about  one-fifth,  or  18,786,- 
705  bushels. 

The  average  yield  of  wheat  in  England  is  twenty- 
eight  bushels  per  acre,  in  the  United  States  not  to 
exceed  fifteen,  in  Ohio  seventeen.     It  would  be  pro- 


368  FUGITIVE  ESSAYS. 

fitable,  in  this  State,  to  aim  at  twenty-five  bushels, 
and  easily  practicable  to  attain  to  twenty-two,  thus 
adding  over  one-fourth  to  our  surplus  in  wheat. 

This  subject  might  be  amplified  and  presented  at 
much  greater  length,  but  I  have  already  become  te- 
dious and  close  at  this  point. 


WHEAT  CROP  OF  HAMILTON  COUNTY. 

In  passing  through  the  county,  it  was  my  prac- 
tice to  note  down  the  remarks  of  each  individual  re- 
specting his  farming  operations ;  and  this  report  will 
consist,  in  a  considerable  degree,  of  those  remarks, 
arranged  under  their  respective  heads. 

It  was  an  object  to  obtain  the  yield — the  time  and 
manner  of  sowing — the  system  of  manure — time  and 
manner  of  harvesting  of  each  crop ;  and  also  to  ascer- 
tain the  kind  of  timber  which  grew  upon  the  soil — the 
length  of  time  in  cultivation — rotation  and  number  of 
crops,  and  such  other  information  as  might  be  sug- 
gested at  the  moment. 

We  know  of  no  better  authority  on  these  subjects 
than  the  farmers  themselves,  and  do  not  feel  ourselves 
competent  to  improve  upon  their  opinions,  statements, 
and  suggestions,  and  therefore  merely  report,  in  as 
clear  and  methodical  a  manner  as  we  can,  the  rela- 
tions which  were  given :  There  is  no  doubt  of  a  direct 
connection  between  the  constitution  of  a  soil  and  the 
timber  it  produces ;  and  from  this  we  may  deduce  a 
connection  between  timber  and  crops.  The  heaviest 
crop  of  wheat  is  found  on  land  having  sugar  tree  and 
oak  as  the  principal  timber,  as  will  appear  from  the 
following  classification : 

Sugar  and  oak,  10  cases,  average  crop  18,40  bs. 

»»~~  md  beech,       19     "  "  "     17,52  " 


AGRICULTURAL   INTEREST   OF   OHIO. 


169 


Beech  and  oak,            7  cases, 
Sugar,  oak,  hickory,    5     " 
Oak,                             21     " 
Hickory,       -              10     " 
Beech,                         12     " 

average  crop  17,14  bs. 
"          "     16,66  " 
"          "      16,00  « 
"          "      14,50  « 
"          «     14,33  " 

Miscellaneous,            30     " 
General  average  of  127     " 

M     15,50  " 
"          «     16,50  " 

The  mixture  of  sugar  and  oak  appears  to  give  the 
best  yield,  sugar  and  beech  next,  and  beech  and  oak 
the  next.  If  an  analysis  of  these  soils  and  of  the 
wood  most  congenial  to  them  was  carefully  made,  we 
should  probably  discover,  not  only  a  resemblance  be- 
tween them  and  their  timber,  but  between  the  timber 
produced  and  the  grain  and  straw  of  wheat. 

The  statement  of  an  average  yield  of  wheat  ena- 
bles us  to  ascertain  the  number  of  acres  cultivated  in 
wheat  in  1839,  when  the  official  return  gives  213,815 
bushels,  for  the  product  of  that  year.  If  that  year 
gave  an  average  crop,  the  quantity  of  ground  then  in 
cultivation  in  wheat  was  13,029  acres. 

The  crop  since  1840  has  been  more  uncertain  in 
its  yield,  price  lower  and  demand  less,  from  which  we 
conclude  that  there  has  not  been  an  increase  in  the 
production  of  the  county  since  that  time. 

MISFORTUNES    TO    WHICH   THE    CROP   IS    LIABLE. 

The  record  we  have  given,  of  the  remarks  made 
upon  wheat,  shows  that  there  are  three  principal  evils 
to  which  it  is  subject,  viz :  rust,  fly,  and  freezing  out. 
The  average  loss  of  the  crop  by  these  and  other  causes 
is  once  in  four  years  a  total  failure. 


EVILS    AND    SEED. 


The  farmers  diner  in  regard  to  which  of  these  is 
the  greatest  enemy  to  wheat ;  six  of  those  speaking 
upon  the  subject  regard  rust  as  the  difficulty  most  to 


370  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

be  avoided  ;  nine  consider  freezing  out  the  most  inju- 
rious, and  nine  suppose  the  fly  to  be  the  worst  enemy. 

In  regard  to  insects  that  prey  upon  crops,  we  have 
a  separate  notice  of  them,  to  which  we  refer,  merely 
calling  the  attention  of  the  reader,  here,  to  the  worms 
observed  by  Mr.  W.  W.  Cary  (30),  and  Mr.  Thorn- 
dyke  Keller  (107),  with  a  view  to  farther  discoveries. 

Respecting  the  quantity  of  seed,  the  farmers  of 
Hamilton  vary  from  three  to  five  pecks.  Mr.  Smeth- 
hart  (99)  considers  three  pecks  to  be  better  calculated 
to  insure  a  full  crop  than  more.  In  Flanders,  two 
Winchester  bushels  are  sown  to  the  English  acre, 
which  is  nearly  eight  pecks  of  our  measure ;  in  Eng- 
land, two  and  a  half  to  three  and  a  half  bushels. 

The  richness  and  depth  of  the  soil  has  so  much  to 
do  with  the  quantity  of  seed  that  it  is  difficult  to  es- 
tablish a  rule  upon  this  subject.  In  England,  how- 
ever, where  the  dibbling  process  has  been  tried  and 
the  seed  planted  in  regular  squares  of  six  inches  on  a 
side,  and  a  seed  in  the  middle  of  two  sides,  the  quan- 
tity is  reduced  to  about  one  and  a  half  bushels  to  the 
acre,  and  the  yield  increased  many  fold. 

TIME    OF    SOWING PRICES. 

Among  the  farmers  who  gave  answers  to  our  in- 
quiries about  the  time  of  sowing,  four  put  in  their 
wheat  in  August,  four  in  October,  nine  in  September, 
and  one  in  November ;  of  those  who  prefer  Septem- 
ber, six  sow  during  the  first  ten  days,  one  by  the  first 
day,  and  two  in  the  latter  part  of  the  month. 

Those  who  cover  the  seed  in  the  first  week  expect 
to  harvest  between  the  25th  ;md  30th  of  June. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  price  of  wheat  at 
Cincinnati,  every  six  months,  for  four  years  past : 

1840,  July  1st,  56  cents  per  bushel. 

1841,  January  1st,      58     "  " 


AGRICULTURAL   INTEREST   OF   OHIO.  371 

1841,  July  1st,  73  cents  per  bushel. 

1842,  January  1st,  1,06  "  " 
"      July  1st,  55  "  " 

1843,  January  1st,  50  "  " 
"      July  1st,  85  "  * 

1844,  January  1st,  75  "  " 
"      July  1st,  60  "  " 

Average  price  per  bushel,  67J  cents. 
Average  in  January  of  each  year,  72,22. 
"         "  July  "         «  65,80. 

The  method  of  tilling  is  very  various.  In  new 
ground,  for  the  first  crop,  the  seed  is  generally  scat- 
tered over  the  fresh  surface,  and  harrowed  in  without 
plowing.  The  rooty  condition  of  the  ground  fre- 
quently prevents  the  use  of  the  plow. 

In  old  ground,  among  farmers,  the  practice  most 
in  vogue  is  to  summer  fallow  and  harrow  in  upon  the 
sod.  In  fields  that  are  clear  of  stumps  and  stones, 
and  very  few  farms  in  Hamilton  county  are  troubled 
with  stone,  the  plow  lays  over  the  sward,  very  uniform 
and  flat.  It  is  thought  that  ground  made  too  mellow 
and  fine  is  more  liable  to  winter-kill  the  wheat  than 
such  as  is  in  the  state  of  clods,  provided  they  are 
dead  and  rotting. 

Some  cases  will  be  observed  in  our  abstract  where 
clover  has  been  turned  in  and  wheat  sowed  upon  fur- 
row immediately,  and  also  where  turf  land  has  been 
broken  up  a  few  weeks  before  seeding. 

In  land  where  plowing  can  be  done  so  perfectly, 
as  to  turn  over  all  the  soil,  it  is  not  inclined  to  send 
up  grass  and  weeds ;  this  practice  of  sowing  soon 
after  breaking  up  is  undoubtedly  advantageous.  It 
allows  the  growing  plant  a  chance  to  absorb  more  of 
the  volatile  portions  of  the  decomposing  sward. 

Upon  the  whole,  this  region  cannot  be  said  to  be 
well  adapted  to  the  culture  of  wheat. 


372  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 


UNCERTAINTY    OP    CROPS. 


A  crop  which  is  liable  to  be  cut  off  once  in  four 
years  is  too  uncertain  to  be  raised  with  profit  for  sale, 
although  every  good  farmer  would  continue,  even  un- 
der this  disadvantage,  to  sow  enough  for  his  family 
use.  It  is  much  less  sure,  and  also  less  abundant  in 
yield,  than  formerly,  when  the  country  was  new. 

This  seems  to  indicate  a  change  of  climate,  as 
well  as  a  change  in  the  condition  of  the  soil.  The 
effect  of  cleared  land,  and  of  cultivation,  is  to  cause 
a  greater  number  of  thawings  and  freezings,  which 
are  each  of  them  injurious  to  the  root,  and  when  land 
becomes  heavy  by  constant  use,  the  effect  of  frost  in 
that  way  is  different  and  more  destructive. 

The  country  is  filled  with  the  fly,  and  there  seems 
to  be  an  increased  disposition  to  rust.  Very  early 
sown  wheat  generally  escapes  the  rust,  but  appears 
to  be  more  exposed  to  the  fly. 

The  Alabama  wheat  has  hitherto  escaped  both, 
and  produces  a  fine  yield  of  good  wheat.  It  has, 
however,  not  been  tried  long  enough  to  pronounce 
upon  its  ultimate  success.  We  should  expect  a  grain 
from  the  South  to  mature  earlier,  and  consequently 
do  better,  provided  the  winters  did  not  injure  it. 

VARIETIES   AND   COMPOSITION. 

A  kind  of  wheat,  called  Virginia  wheat,  has  been 
tried  with  that  view,  as  we  are  told,  and  gave  a  good 
crop,  but  we  have  no  personal  knowledge  concerning  it. 

Mr.  Frost  (64),  of  Crosby,  has  tried  Saxony 
wheat,  and  considers  both  it  and  the  "blue  stem"'  M 
before  our  common  kinds,  and  even  before  Alabama. 

The  fact  noted  by  Mr.  Brown  (65),  that  the  fly 
wliieh  infested  the  timothy  part  of  his  fallow,  did  not 
the  clover,  is  worthy  of  remembrance. 

In  England  there  are  forty-two  varieties  of  culti- 


AGRICULTURAL   INTEREST    OF    OHIO. 


373 


vated  wheat,  winter,  spring,  and  summer ;  but  as  yet 
they  are  not  well  classified  in  botanical  order. 

The  Romans  of  the  days  of  our  Savior  sowed  the 
common  red  and  the  white  wheat  in  general,  but  in 
moist  situations  they  made  use  of  the  bearded. 

Sir  Humphrey  Davy's  analysis  of  wheat  shows 
that  the  spring  wheat  contains  the  largest  amount  of 
gluten,  and  the  Farmer's  Encyclopoedia  intimates  that 
it  is  the  most  nutritious. 


English  wheat,     . 
Sicilian       "       .     . 
Spring        " 
Blighted    "      .     . 

Gluten. 

Starch. 

Insoluble 
matter. 

Total. 

19 
20 
24 
13 

77 
75 
70 
52 

4 

5 

6 

35 

100 

100 
100 
100 

The  substances  of  a  mineral  kind,  drawn  from  the 
earth,  are,  according  to  the  analysis  of  Sprengel,  for 
1000  lbs.  of 


Wheat  and 

Wheat  straw 

I 

straw,  per 
acre. 

Wheat. 

and  Wheat. 

. 

Ebs. 

ft)S. 

ft)S. 

285 

225 

20 

Potash. 

337 

240 

29 

Soda. 

816 

96 

240 

Lime. 

186 

90 

32 

Magnesia. 

296 

26 

90 

Alumina  and  iron. 

9010 

400 

2870 

Silica. 

161 

50 

37 

Sulphuric  acid. 

550 

40 

170 

Phosphoric  acid. 

100 

10 

30 

Chlorine. 

117,41 

11,77 

35,18 

Weight  of  ashes. 

32 


374  FUGITIVE  ESSAYS. 

If  we  call  the  weight  of  straw  per  acra  3000  lbs., 
which  is  near  the  average,  and  allow  sixteen  bushels 
of  grain,  or  say  1000  lbs.  weight,  we  shall  have  4000 
ft)s.  as  the  vegetable  product,  which  leaves  117,41  lbs. 
earthy  residue. 

This  result  is  not  strictly  exact,  and  the  grain  of 
Germany,  where  Sprengel  operated,  may  not  be  com- 
posed exactly  as  our  own.  The  most  striking  fact 
contained  in  this  table  is  the  discrepancy  between  the 
amount  of  lime  in  the  kernel  compared  with  the  stalk. 

TIME   OF    HARVESTING. 

Having  given  the  principal  details  of  our  observa- 
tions among  the  cultivators  of  the  soil  at  home,  we 
add  some  considerations  from  the  experience  of  farm- 
ers in  other  countries^  particularly  in  relation  to  the 
state  of  Wheat  when  it  is  cut. 

In  1840,  Mr.  John  Hannum,  of  North  Deighton, 
in  Yorkshire,  England,*  made  several  experiments 
upon  the  relative  value  of  wheat,  cut  at  various  stages 
of  ripeness.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 
harvests  of  England  occur  from  four  to  six  weeks 
later  than  in  Southern  Ohio: 

Specimen  No.  1,  cut  green,  August       4, 
"  No.  2,  cut  raw,      August      18, 

"  No.  4,  cut  ripe,      September  1, 

The  green  specimen  had  not  begun  to  turn  yellow ; 
the  chaff  adhered  to  the  kernel,  which  was  green,  soft, 
and  full  of  milk,  although  perfectly  formed.  No.  2, 
or  the  raw,  was  quite  yellow  from  the  roots  about  one 
foot  upwards,  and  the  whole  stalk,  though  apparently 
green,  was  seen  to  be,  upon  close  cxami nation,  of  a 
yellowish  tint.     The  ears  were  open,  the  chaff  yellow 

*  Farmer's  Encyclopedia,  article  wheat,  p.  1134. 


AGRICULTURAL   INTEREST   OF   OHIO.  375 

and  green,  and  the  grain  still  soft  and  pulpy,  with 
some  fluid  matter  in  the  kernel.  The  specimen  No.  3 
was  ripe,  without  being  dead  ripe  or  brittle,  but  in 
what  is  called  harvesting  order. 

bushels.  lbs.  lbs.  straw. 

The  ripe  gave  30  of    60  2,688 

The  raw  gave  30,1307    "      "  2,352 

The  green  gave       26,1356    "      "  2,737 

The  straw  of  the  green  parcel  was,  as  we  see, 
about  385  Sbs.  heavier  than  the  raw,  and  49  lbs. 
heavier  than  the  ripe.  The  price  per  quarter  of  8 
bushels,  showing  the  quality  in  market,  was 

For  the  ripe,     ...         62  shillings. 
"     "    raw,         ...     64         " 

"     "    green,  61         " 

» 

The  produce  in  money  per  acre,  including  straw, 

stood  as  follows : 

£.     s.      d. 
Ripe,  .         .         .         .         12  17     3f 

Raw,  .         .         .         .     13     7     3J 

Green,        .         .         .         .         11  11  10J 

The  same  gentleman  made  further  experiments  in 
1842,  and  derived  the  following  results :  He  cut 
grain  fully  ripe,  two  days  before  ripe,  two  weeks, 
three  weeks,  four  weeks,  which  specimens  are  num- 
bered 1,  2,  3,  4,  and  5,  beginning  with  the  greenest : 

100  lbs.  No.  1,  gave  flour  75  lbs.,  shorts  7,  bran  17. 

16. 
13. 
14. 
15. 

Here  No.  3,  which  is  called  raw,  and  was  cut  two 
weeks  before  ripeness,  gives  8  per  cent,  more  flour 


a 

u 

a 

2, 

U 

a 

76  " 

a 

7, 

a 

it 

a 

u 

3, 

it 

a 

80  " 

it 

5, 

a 

a 

a 

a 

4, 

a 

tt 

77  " 

a 

T, 

a 

(< 

a 

a 

5, 

a 

a  ■ 

72  " 

II 

11, 

u 

376  FUGITIVE   ESSAY8. 

than  No.  5,  cut  ripe.  The  ripe  gave  least  of  all ;  and 
No.  4,  cut  two  days  before  ripeness,  the  next  largest 
quantity. 

Of  course  the  bran  and  shorts  of  No.  3  were  least, 
and  the  bran  was  found  to  be  thin  and  soft,  while  No. 
5  was  coarse  and  harsh.  The  average  yield  per  acre 
of  these  experiments  was  28  bushels ;  and  the  weight 
of  flour  in  equal  measures  of  wheat  was  15  per  cent, 
in  favor  of  the  raw  over  the  ripe;  the  gain  in  straw, 
14  per  cent.  There  was  a  gain  in  value  of  163 
pounds  of  wheat  per  quarter,  and  in  the  acre  yielding 
28  bushels  a  gain  of  583  pounds. 


INDIAN    HISTORY: 

Their  Relations  to  us  at  the  time  of  the  American  Revolution. 
[Western  Literary  Journal  and  Review,  January  1845.] 


The  British  authorities  in  Canada  had,  during  the 
progress  of  the  American  Revolution,  solemnly  grant- 
ed the  western  domain  to  the  Indians  residing  upon  it. 

In  July,  1744,  the  Six  Nations  made  a  deed  of  all 
the  lands  that  were  then,  or  should  afterwards  be, 
within  the  chartered  limits  of  Virginia,  to  the  king 
of  England.* 

Notwithstanding  the  numerous  charters  which  the 
crown  of  England  had  granted  to  her  citizens,  com- 
panies, and  colonies,  overlapping  each  other,  and  in 
some  instances  covering  the  soil  with  many  thick- 
nesses of  paper  title,  the  ministry,  at  the  peace  of 
1763,  undertook  to  confine  all  previous  grants  to  the 
waters  of  the  Atlantic,  or  to  the  Alleghany  ridge. 

There  was  much  apparent  force  in  this  position. 
Neither  the  king  of  England,  nor  the  ministers  or  the 
people,  regarded  the  vast  regions  behind  the  moun- 
tains as  of  much  consequence  to  the  nation  or  her 
colonies.  The  home  government  did  not  anticipate 
what  Grest  and  Washington  plainly  foresaw,  that  such 
a  soil  would  be  occupied,  unless  prevented  by  force. 
England  was  ready  to  give  it  in  exchange  for  other 
lands  on  the  north ;  but  the  French,  confident  of  suc- 
cess in   the    field,   refused    to   accept    the   mountain 

*  Bancroft's  Ab.  Vol.  II,  p.  305. 

32* 


378  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

boundary,  which  was  to  branch  off  in  Pennsylvania, 
pass  through  French  Creek,  and  include  the  eastern 
shore  of  Lake  Erie.*  The  ruling  authority  of  Great 
Britain,  in  the  early  part  of  the  old  French  war,  ap- 
pears to  have  viewed  the  indefinite  regions  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi as  destined  to  remain  a  savage  wild  to  the 
end  of  time.  It  was  therefore  of  little  consequence, 
whether  it  was  held  by  the  French,  Spaniards,  or  any 
other  nation,  provided  such  nation  should  be  at  peace 
with  England.  The  French  still  held  Lake  Cham- 
plain  and  its  vicinage.  The  English  regarded  the 
possession  of  its  shores,  and  the  southern  border  of 
Lake  Ontario,  as  a  matter  of  importance ;  with  the 
eastern  slope  of  the  Alleghenies,  and  the  plain  be- 
tween them  and  the  sea,  and  with  the  Atlantic  waters 
of  New  England  and  Nova  Scotia,  and  the  regions  of 
Northern  New  York  and  Vermont,  they  would  have 
been  content. 

They  had  not,  like  the  French,  seen  the  latent 
resources  of  what  is  now  styled  the  West.  To  them, 
its  value  consisted  merely  in  the  number  of  skins  it 
would  furnish  her  traders.  The  thought  of  introduc- 
ing civilization  into  the  dark  recesses  of  the  Wabash 
and  the  Illinois  had  not  possessed  an  English  brain ; 
or  if  it  had,  no  such  project  was  entertained  at  the 
English  Court.  France  had  a  religious  order,  whose 
zeal  spread  throughout  her  government.  England 
had  her  schemes  of  discovery  and  conquest ;  but  they 
were  based,  not  upon  an  extension  of  religion  or  in- 
telligence, but  the  advantages  of  commerce.  Her  cit- 
izens, imbibing  the  same  sentiments  as  her  statesmen 
promulgated,  found  no  sufficient  inducements  to  oc- 
cupy, or  even  to  explore,  the  western  forests.  They 
were  consequently  ignorant  of  the  face  of  the  country, 

*  American  Annual  Register,  1825-0,  and  Laws  of  England, 
Vol.  VI,  page  3U4  ;   Douglass'  Summary,  Appendix,  page  42. 


INDIAN    HISTORY.  379 

the  number  and  character  of  the  aborigines,  the  broad 
and  wonderful  rivers  which  flowed  past  their  wig  warns, 
or  the  soil,  unsurpassed  in  fertility,  which  exceeded 
in  quantity  all  that  portion  of  the  continent,  occupied 
by  the  English  emigrants.  But  with  Frenchmen  it 
was  different;  and  in  1750,  every  important  stream, 
whose  sources  lay  in  the  nooks  of  the  Alleghenies,  or 
whose  waters  mingled  in  the  northern  lakes,  had  float- 
ed the  trading  barque,  cross,  and  colors  of  France. 
She  was  therefore  well  acquainted  with  its  unspeak- 
able resources,  and  could  not  think  of  abandoning  it 
without  a  struggle.  The  two  nations  continued  to 
fight,  and  fortune  decided  that  France  should  yield  to 
her  rival; the  lakes  and  the  left  bank  of  the  Missis- 
sippi. 

Still  the  ministers  of  Great  Britain  do  not  appear 
to  have  given  credit  to  the  descriptions  of  Joutel,  La 
Salle,  Hennepin,  and  Charlevoix,  respecting  the  amaz- 
ing fertility  of  Canada  and  Louisiana.  They  very 
logically  drew  the  conclusion,  that  it  of  right  belonged 
to  the  crown  in  some  sense,  separate  from  the  char- 
tered colonies.  Their  course  of  reasoning  was  thus — 
when  our  former  kings  professed  to  give  away  the 
lands  between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans,  the 
western  boundary  was  remote,  unknown,  and  inde- 
finite :  and  for  this  reason  alone,  an  alteration  might 
be  permitted,  upon  later  information,  changing  the 
nature  of  the  grant. 

Although  we  supposed  the  British  dominions  ex- 
tending across  the  continent  in  1609,  and  have  always 
claimed  that  such  is  the  case,  yet,  long  before  we  ac- 
quired actual  possession  beyond  *the  mountains,  our 
neighbors  and  competitors  had  stamped  the  name  of 
Louis  XIV.  on  the  trees  of  a  thousand  rivers.  Had 
you,  citizens  of  the  new  world,  been  as  zealous  christ- 
ians, or  as  keen  discoverers,  the  banner  of  St.  George 


380  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

would  have  stood  in  the  place  of  the  Lily  and  the 
Cross.  We  must  admit,  therefore,  that  although  we 
possessed  the  waters  of  the  Hudson,  Delaware,  and 
Potomac,  we  did  not  know  whether  the  South  Sea 
washed  the  western  base  of  the  mountains  from  which 
they  sprang,  or  of  other  and  more  distant  ranges,  un- 
til those  Catholic  missionaries  told  us  it  did  not.  If 
the  occupation  of  the  Connecticut  and  Susquehanna 
at  the  mouth  gave  us  the  territory  over  which  they 
spread  their  hundred  branches,  even  to  the  rising 
springs  which  the  earth  spouts  forth,  then  Cham] .lain, 
Marquette,  and  La  Salle,  by  planting  posts  and  set- 
tlements on  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  the  great  river  of 
the  West,  invested  the  French  crown  with  an  equally 
good  title  to  the  regions  drained  through  their  chan- 
nels. 

That  being  acknowledged,  your  grants  were,  in 
part,  the  property  of  another  nation  at  the  time,  and 
not  in  our  power  to  yield.  And  more,  the  company 
whose  claim  is  clearest,  embracing  the  plantations  of 
Virginia,  has  been  deprived  of  her  charter,  and  the 
unappropriated  lands  reverted,  in  1G24,  to  the  crown. 
Our  own  title  and  that  of  the  French  are  now  united, 
and  the  country  is  at  the  disposal  of  King  George  III. 

Such  were  the  premises  upon  which  England  as- 
sumed the  disposal  of  the  western  lands,  after  the 
treaty  of  1763.  This  was  made  manifest  by  a  formal 
proclamation  soon  after.  *  In  this  document,  the 
British  government  declares  its  intention  to  li- 
the whole  West,  for  the  use  and  permanent  occupa- 
tion of  the  aborigines  then  in  possession.  All  other 
persons  are  forbidden  to  remain  or  settle  within  this 
region;  and  thus  the  most  civilized  nation  of  the 
earth  decreed  the  continuance  of  barbarism  over  the 
best  portion  of  North  America. 

♦American  Register,  1825-6;  Appendix,  page  11. 


INDIAN    HISTORY.  381 

This  determination  could  not  have  arisen  from  a 
sense  of  obligation  to  the  Indians ;  for  the  Hurons, 
Miamis,  and  Shawnees,  then  occupying  the  Ohio  and 
Lake  Erie,  had  been  leagued  with  the  French  against 
them.  It  was  possibly  a  measure  of  expediency  and 
humanity,  adopted  for  two  reasons — the  establishment 
of  peace,  and  the  removal  of  the  Six  Nations  from 
New  York.  Secure  in  the  interposition  of  a  range  of 
mountains,  they  doubtless  considered  the  abandon- 
ment of  the  region  beyond,  an  easy  purchase  of  the 
future  tranquillity  of  the  Atlantic  settlements.  Here 
the  aborigines  might  roam  in  quiet  possession  of  their 
hunting-grounds,  in  a  wild,  where  no  white  man  would 
desire  to  enter  and  abide. 

The  desires  of  the  home  government  were  for  a 
time  gratified  by  the  colonists.  But  soon  after,  Daniel 
Boone,  John  Finley,  John  Stewart,  Joseph  Holden, 
James  Mooney,  and  William  Cool,  passed  the  Cum- 
berland Gap,  and  reached  the  Kentucky  River.  Thus, 
in  the  summer  of  1769,  these  roving  woodsmen  found 
the  country  east  of  the  mountains  too  straightened 
for  them,  and  came  to  occupy  that  far-off  wilderness 
which,  six  years  before,  the  British  statesmen  imagin- 
ed would  never  be  disturbed  by  the  sound  of  the  axe. 
The  assignees  of  William  Penn  had  also  settled  them- 
selves around  Fort  Pitt,  with  a  Gothic  determination 
to  remain.  Not  only  the  Pennsylvanians,  but  the 
Marylanders  and  Virginians,  who  accompanied  Brad- 
dock  and  Forbes  in  the  expeditions  against  Fort  Du 
Quesne,  had  seen  the  flow  of  the  rivers  and  the  lux- 
uriance of  the  lowlands  beyond  the  mountains.  Those 
of  them  who  survived  to  meet  their  neighbors  in  the 
East,  did  not  fail  to  dwell  with  eloquence  upon  the 
richness  of  that  distant  wild,  when  gathered  about  the 
firesides  of  their  homes. 

The  Virginians  began  to  creep  cautiously  over  the 


382  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

Blue  Ridge,  carrying  the  surveyor's  chain  and  the 
rifle.  They  found  on  the  Kanawha  and  the  Ohio 
some  rich  bottoms,  the  counterpart  of  the  James  River 
tobacco  fields.  The  Indians  regarded  this  as  an  in- 
vasion. The  men  bore  the  deadliest  weapons  in  their 
hands ;  and  more,  they  busied  themselves  in  marking 
the  trees  with  their  axes,  and  measuring  over  the 
country  with  a  mysterious  instrument.  This  looked 
like  war  and  possession.  The  western  Indians,  if  they 
knew  of  the  deed  of  the  Iroquois  in  1744,  knew  also 
that  they  did  not  own  the  land  they  pretended  to  con- 
vey. No  white  sachem  had  obtained  permission  to 
send  his  young  men  into  their  hunting-grounds,  to  lay 
them  out  in  parcels,  drive  stakes,  write  down  memo- 
randa on  paper,  and  to  erect  a  stockade  or  place  of 
defence. 

His  untutored  mind,  by  degrees,  took  in  the  plan 
of  the  Virginians,  but  his  tribes  were  scattered  all 
along  the  Ohio,  the  Scioto,  Wabash,  and  Miami,  and 
could  not  at  once  make  an  official  remonstrance  to 
their  father,  the  king  of  England.  His  dark  eye 
kindled  with  anger,  as  he  watched  the  advance  of  the 
white  man.  The  frontier  man,  in  his  hunting-shirt 
and  moccasins,  had  planted  himself  there,  with  a  de- 
termination to  make  the  occupation  a  matter  of  life 
and  death.  He  neither  feared  or  regarded  the  blan- 
keted vagabond,  whom  he  encountered  from  time  to 
time.  They  were  bold  men  who  were  ready  to  assert 
possession  by  mortal  combat.  Quarrels  and  murders 
were  inevitable.  The  red  man  knew  white  men  only 
as  one  band,  conspired  against  his  country.  When 
Michael  Cresap  at  Redstone,  and  Daniel  Greathouse 
at  Wheeling,  had  secured  themselves  in  Forts,  he  would 
slyly  Dy  those  advanced  stations,  and  patiently 
climb  the  peaks  at  the  heads  of  the  Kanawha,  to  strike 
some  unsuspecting  settler  in  the  western  countrv.     If 


INDIAN   HISTORY.  383 

a  horse  was  seen  grazing  in  the  field,  he  was  pressed 
into  the  service,  and  being  loaded  with  plunder,  was 
led  back  to  their  towns  across  the  Ohio. 

In  the  guilt  or  innocence  of  the  border  difficulties, 
the  colonial  government  involved  itself  as  well  as  its 
citizens.  The  House  of  Burgesses,  which  sprang  into 
existence  under  the  London  Company,  had  gradually 
acquired  the  substantial  control  of  the  province. 
When  the  French  war  commenced,  in  1754,  the  colo- 
nies, Virginia  in  particular,  entered  into  the  designs 
of  the  crown,  and  freely  raised  troops  and  money  for 
the  expeditions  in  the  West. 

In  the  poverty  of  that  colony,  it  became  necessary 
to  offer  lands  in  payment  of  Treasury  Warrants,  and 
for  military  bounties  and  services.  No  restrictions 
were  contained  in  those  grants,  and  the  holders  were 
therefore  at  liberty  to  spread  them  upon  the  soil  of 
any  western  water  within  the  boundaries  claimed  by 
Virginia.  These  were,  as  we  shall  remember,  almost 
without  limit  on  the  west  and  north-west.  The  crown 
could  not  consistently  resist  these  entries,  even  if  they 
were  desirous  to  protect  the  Indian  in  his  wild  home. 
The  forces,  raised  by  the  Virginians,  had  fought  at  her 
(England's)  request  against  her  ancient  enemy,  and 
conquered  for  her  benefit.  They  were  consequently 
suffered  to  enjoy  the  fruits  of  the  toil,  exposure,  and 
danger,  that  had  surrounded  them  in  these  campaigns. 
Such  were  the  circumstances  which  predisposed  the 
two  races,  occupying  opposite  bases  of  the  Laurel 
Hill,  to  mutual  robbery,  retribution,  treachery,  tor- 
ture, and  death. 

Another  great  event  was  already  (1770)  in  visible 
approach.  The  colonies  had  been  animated  by  a  bold 
spirit  of  independence,  during  an  entire  century.  They 
had  by  means  of  a  representative  assembly,  by  con- 
tinual, but  almost  imperceptible  acquisition,  assumed 


384  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

such  a  control  of  their  political  affairs,  that  the  spirit 
of  republican  freedom  may  be  said  to  have  been  firm- 
ly established  in  America,  at  the  close  of  the  French 
■war. 

Just  as  the  whites  were  attempting,  in  defiance  of 
the  Proclamation  of  1763,  to  plant  themselves  on  the 
waters  of  the  Ohio,  the  spirit  of  liberty,  not  satisfied 
with  the  substance,  determined  to  achieve  the  name 
and  insignia  of  independence.  Occasions  were  not 
wanting  to  give  an  air  of  justice  to  this  determination  : 
indeed,  all  people  are  empowered  at  all  times  to  as- 
sert their  freedom,  and,  either  with  or  without  cause, 
to  change  their  form  of  government. 

The  agitations  of  the  struggle  for  an  avowed  na- 
tional independence,  not  only  deprived  the  British  of 
the  power  to  enforce  their  projects  in  regard  to  the 
Indians,  but  led  the  ministers  and  generals  of  Eng- 
land to  encourage  the  ferocity  of  the  red  man  against 
his  white  brother.  What  more  was  necessary  to  stim- 
ulate both  parties  to  deeds  of  cruelty,  injustice,  and 
revenge?  Can  the  imagination  invent  a  case,  where 
the  untamed  passions  of  men  might  be  more  inflamed  V 

This  limited  review  of  Indian  affairs  is  given,  in 
order  to  elucidate  the  moral  relations  of  that  people 
to  the  whites,  at  the  time  of  the  Revolution.  * 


INDIAN  TITLES  IN  OHIO. 

[Democratic  Monthly  Magazine,  May  1844.] 


The  English  acquired  their  first  real  interest  in 
western  soil,  as  against  civilized  nations,  by  the  treaty 
of  1763,  which  was  based  upon  conquest.  In  Sep- 
tember 1726,  the  Iroquois  ceded  to  the  English  crown 
all  their  lands  west  of  Lake  Erie ;  but  to  these  terri- 
tories their  title  was  only  nominal,  and  of  little  or  no 
value.  At  the  same  time  and  place,  Albany,  in  New 
York,  they  granted  a  tract,  sixty  miles  in  width,  along 
the  south  shore  of  Lake  Ontario  and  Lake  Erie,  from 
Oswego  to  the  Cuyahoga  River.* 

Afterwards,  at  Lancaster,  in  Pennsylvania,  in  July 
1744,  for  the  consideration  of  four  hundred  pounds 
sterling,  the  Six  Nations  conveyed  "all  the  lands  that 
are,  or  may  be,  hereafter,  within  the  Colony  of  Vir- 
ginia." 

It  was  forty  years  afterwards, f  when  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  United  States  had  been  acknowledged, 
that  the  American  Commissioners,  Oliver  Wolcott, 
Richard  Butler,  and  Arthur  Lee,  held  a  council  with 
all  the  tribes  of  the  Six  Nations,  at  Fort  Stanwix. 

These  nations  relinquished  all  claim  to  the  coun- 
try west  of  a  line  beginning  at  Johnson's  landing, 
four  miles  east  of  Niagara,  on  Lake  Ontario  (by  them 
called  Lake  Oswego),  thence  southerly,  and  always 

.  *  2d  Bancroft,  236.  f  October  22,  1784. 

33 


380  FUGITIVE     ESSAYS.  ~- 

four  miles  distant  from  the  carrying-path  between  the 
lakes,  to  the  mouth  of  Buffalo  Creek:  thence  south 
to  the  Pennsylvania  line ;  with  it  westward  to  her 
west  line,  and  south  to  the  Ohio  River.*  The  other 
tribes  do  not  appear  to  have  contested  the  ownership 
of  the  Six  Nations  to  the  eastern  end  of  Lake  Erie, 
as  far  west  as  the  Cuyahoga  River.  By  the  peace  of 
1783,  England  assigned  all  her  rights  to  the  United 
Colonies;  whether  derived  from  the  French,  or  the 
Indians  ;  whether  acquired  by  treaty,  or  by  conquest. 

By  the  treaty  of  Fort  Stanwix,  the  United  St.. 
as  a  new  political  body,  united  in  themselves  the  title 
of  all  claimants,  civilized  and  savage,  to  the  north- 
eastern part  of  Ohio.  It  is  apparent,  that  the  con- 
veyances, known  by  the  name  of  treaties,  between  the 
French  and  English,  the  English  and  Americans,  and 
also  of  the  Americans  and  Indians,  are  based  upon 
conquest.  The  possession  of  the  country,  acquired 
by  war  and  force,  against  the  will  and  resistance  of 
the  occupant,  is  the  substantial  title.  The  treaty  is 
the  evidence  of  its  extent;  procured  by  the  sacoessfu] 
from  the  defeated  party,  upon  such  conditions  as  the 
victorious  nation  deemed  it  necessary  to  impose,  or 
politic  to  accept. 

This  is  particularly  the  case  with  Indian  treaties. 
From  the  peace  of  Paris  to  the  American  Revolution, 
the  English  crown  exacted  nothing  from  the  north- 
western Indians  but  peace,  and  a  restoration  of  pris- 
oners. 

At  the  close  of  the  Revolution,  these  tribes,  having 
entered  into  a  war-alliance  with  our  enemies,  natural- 
ly suffered  with  them  the  effects  of  lawful  conquest. 
Nothing  else  would  have  extorted  the  treaty  of  Fort 
Stanwix  from  the  Iroquois,  to  whom  a  lasting  peace 
was  thus  secured. 

*  American  State  Papers,  Indian  Affairs,  Vol.  I,  Page  10. 


INDIAN   TITLES   IN    OHIO.  387 

The  United  States,  as  we  shall  soon  discover,  con- 
tinued its  negotiations  with  all  the  neighboring  tribes, 
on  the  west  and  north.  In  these  conferences,  it  is 
true,  matters  bore  the  appearance  of  bargain  and  sale ; 
a  certain  amount  of  goods  and  silver  for  a  given  tract 
of  land  ;  but  without  the  previous  conquest,  such  coun- 
cils would  not  have  been  held,  or  such  propositions 
received. 

In  their  talks,  the  Government  Commissioners 
took  the  position  of  conquerors  treating  with  an  anta- 
gonist, whom  fortune  had  abandoned  to  defeat.  The 
Indians  so  regarded  it,  and  viewing  these  treaties  as 
made  under  durance  or  over-ruling  fear,  they  assented 
to  them  in  order  to  obtain  a  temporary  relief,  from 
policy  and  necessity. 

They  never  regarded  them  as  contracts  between 
parties  free  and  equal,  and,  therefore,  seldom  entered 
into  them  as  measures  to  be  kept  in  good  faith.  From 
1784  to  1795,  they  appear  to  have  made  the  treaty 
system  a  part  of  the  strategy  of  war. 

By  the  treaty  of  Fort  Stanwix,  the  Oneidas  and 
Tuscaroras  were  secured  in  the  possession  of  their 
lands,  as  then  occupied. 

Having  concluded  this  negotiation,  Mr.  Butler 
and  Mr.  Lee  proceeded  to  Fort  Mcintosh,  on  the 
Ohio,  at  the  mouth  of  Big  Beaver,  and  were  joined 
by  Mr.  George  Clark,  who  acted  with  them  in  the 
place  of  Mr.  Woolcott. 

There  were  present  delegates  and  warriors  from 
the  Chippewa,  Ottowa,  Delaware,  and  Wyandot  na- 
tions. 

The  Delawares  and  Wyandots  agreed  to  confine 
themselves  within  the  following  territory  :  Beginning 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Cuyahoga,  where  the  Six  Nations 
ended;  thence  up  that  stream  to  the  "Portage  path," 
and  with  it  to  the  Tuscarawas  branch  of  the  Muskin- 


388  FUGITIVE  ESSAYS. 

gum ;  down  the  same  to  the  forks  at  the  crossing 
place  above  Fort  Laurens ;  thence  to  the  mouth  of 
the  creek,  where  the  English  fort  was  situated  on  the 
Big  Miami,  and  which  was  taken  by  the  French,  in 
1752 ;  and  thence,  with  the  Portage  path,  to  the 
Maumee  or  Omie  (St.  Mary's  River),  and  with  it  to 
the  lake,  and  down  along  the  shore  to  the  Cuyahoga. 
The  lands  east,  south,  and  west  of  these  boundaries, 
they  admit  to  be  the  property  of  the  United  States. 

From  the  Chippewa  and  Ottawa  country,  a  re- 
servation of  six  miles  square  was  made  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Maumee ;  a  strip  six  miles  on  the  west  side  of 
the  Detroit  River,  as  far  north  as  Lake  St.  Clair,  and 
twelve  miles  square  at  Mackinaw. 

A  mutual  peace  was  concluded  with  them  all ;  the 
"Wyandots  delivering  three  hostages,  and  the  Dela- 
wares  two.  as  a  guaranty  for  their  engagement  to  re- 
turn all  prisoners,  white  or  black* — concluded  Jan- 
uary 21st,  1785. 

The  Shawnees  were  not  regarded  by  the  other 
tribes  as  owning  any  territory  in  the  north-west.  They 
were,  however,  so  willing  and  efficient  in  waging  war 
upon  the  whites,  that  a  spacious  and  rich  country  was 
allotted  them  upon  the  Scioto. 

A  council  was  held  with  them  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Great  Miami,  in  January,  1786,  by  Messrs.  Butler 
and  Clark,  assisted  by  S.  II.  Parsons,  Esq.  Here 
they  acknowledged  the  United  States  to  be  sovereign 
within  the  territory  relinquished  by  Great  Britain, 
and  promised  to  deliver  up  all  prisoners.  By  consent 
of  the  other  tribes,  they  were  allotted  as  a  hunting- 
ground  a  tract  on  the  bead-waters  of  the  two  Miamis, 
about  forty  miles  broad,  running  westward  from  the 
Wyandot  and  Delaware  boundary  to  the  Wabash 
River — concluded  January  31st. 

*  State  Papers,  Vol.  I,  page  11. 


INDIAN   TITLES   IN    OHIO. 


Three  years  after  this  transaction,  General  Arthur 
St.  Clair  convened  the  Six  Nations  at  Fort  Harmar, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Muskingum. 

The  United  States  were  making  such  rapid  acqui- 
sitions of  the  Indian  territory,  that  the  Mohawk  chief 
Thay-an-da-negea  had,  in  the  meantime,  like  Pontiac, 
concocted  another  confederacy,  which  will  receive  a 
separate  consideration.  *    ' 

The  five  nations,  the  Chippewas  and  Wyandots, 
the  Ottowas,  Delawares,  Shawnees,  Twichteewees  or 
Miamis,  Potawotomies  and  Cherokees,  together  with 
the  confederation  of  the  Wabash  tribes,  assembled  in 
convention  at  the  Huron  village,  near  the  mouth  of 
Detroit  River.  This  imposing  council  joined  in  an 
eloquent  address  to  the  Congress  of  the  United  States, 
declaring  all  treaties  void  that  were  not  sanctioned 
by  all  the  tribes.  This  production  is  dated  December 
18,  1786. 

But  this  did  not  prevent  the  Six  Nations,  with  the 
exception  of  the  Mohawks,  the  tribe  of  which  Brant 
was  chief,  from  treating  with  General  St.  Clair  at 
Fort  Hamar. 

In  consideration  of  $8,000  and  certain  presents, 
they  confirmed  the  treaty  of  Fort  Stanwix,  and  agreed 
to  deliver  up  horse-thieves,  and  murderers,  to  be  pun- 
ished by  our  laws.  The  Mohawks  had  the  privilege 
of  assenting  to  the  treaty,  in  case  they  should  desire 
to  become  parties. 

At  the  same  council-ground  appeared  the  Wyan- 
dots, Delawares,  Chippewas,  and  Ottowas,  who  sol- 
emnly confirmed  the  treaty  of  Fort  Mcintosh.  Also, 
the  Potawotomies  and'Sauks,  who  relinquished  their 
rights  to  the  country  east,  south,  and  west,  of  the  old 
Delaware  and  Wyandot  boundary,  and  a  reserve  of 
six  miles  square  at  Fort  Sandusky.  An  universal 
agreement  was  made  to  sell  to  no  power,  or  person. 
33* 


**. 


w 

3ITIVE   ESSAYS. 


but  the  United  States ;  and  to  deliver  up  all  murder- 
ers and  robbers.  They  were  permitted  to  inflict  such 
punishment  upon  intruders  on  their  lands  as  the  sev- 
eral tribes  should  see  fit.  The  amount  here  paid  the 
western  Indians  was  $6,000  in  money,  together  with 
liberal  provisions  and  certain  presents.  A  complaint 
was  entered  by  the  Wyandots  against  the  Shawnees, 
whom  they  said  were  troublesome,  not  only  to  the 
United  States,  but  to  the  other  tribes,  and  were  mere- 
ly living  by  sufferance  among  them. 

They  threatened  that,  unless  the  Sh;n\nees  would 
be  at  peace,  they  should  be  dispossessed  of  the  hunt- 
ing-ground described  at  the  mouth  of  the  Miami,  in 
1786,  and  affirmed  that  this  region,  of  right,  belong- 
ed to  the  Wyandots.  This  treaty  was  finally  assented 
to  on  the  9th  of  January,  1789  ;  and  the  government 
regarded  the  title  to  the  State  of  Ohio,  south  of  the 
Fort  Loramie's  and  Fort  Laurens  line,  and  east  of 
the  Cuyahoga,  as  settled  beyond  question. 

During  the  previous  summer  and  fall,  white  settle- 
ments had  been  formed  at  the  Muskingum  and  the 
little  Miami,  and  also  at  Cincinnati. 

Public  surveys  had  been  commenced  north-west 
of  the  Ohio,  soon  after  the  treaty  at  Stanwix  ;  and 
had  now  extended  over  large  tracts  of  country. 

The  mass  of  the  Indians  were  still  fixed  in  the  de- 
termination that  the  Americans  should  remain  south 
of  the  Ohio.  The  surveys,  and  finally  the  permanent 
settlements,  so  rapidly  forming  on  its  northern  bank, 
exasperated  them  to  madness. 

Treaties,  signed  by  chiefs  and  head-men,  had  little 
influence  in  restraining  young  men  and  warriors,  who 
thirsted  for  the  blood  of  the  whites,  and  murder*  were 
continually  perpetrated. 

The  new  government  of  the  United  States,  under 
the  Constitution,  soon  determined  to  make  serious  war 


INDIAN   TITLES   IN    OHIO.  391 

upon  them;  but  its  resources  were  limited,  and  its 
generals  unsuccessful.  It  was  not  until  after  the  ter- 
rible infliction,  at  the  battle  of  the  Rapids,  in  1794, 
that  the  Indian  concluded  to  yield  to  his  destiny. 

The  consequence  of  this  action  was  the  ratification 
of  a  new  treaty,  at  Greenville,  on  the  3d  of  August, 
1795.  It  was  signed  by  the  Wyandots,  Delawares, 
Shawnees,  Ottowas,  Chippewas,  Pottawotomies,  Mia- 
mis,  Eel-River-Indians,  Weas,  Kickapoos,  Pianke- 
shaws,  and  Kaskaskies  ;  twelve  tribes,  who  had  suffer- 
ed in  the  engagement  the  year  before. 

In  1793,  when  Colonel  Hardin  and  Major  True- 
man  were  sent  into  the  Wabash  country,  with  offers 
of  peace,  they  were  taken  as  prisoners  and  murdered. 
Other  offers  were  made,  by  General  Wayne,  in  1794, 
before  the  battle,  and  had  been  refused.  They  were 
repeated  after  the  victory,  but  the  chiefs  and  warriors 
were  slow  to  assent  to  the  formation  of  a  new  treaty, 
which,  they  were  well  aware,  must  be  severe  upon 
them.  They  returned  to  their  villages  to  consult  their 
tribes,  and  to  confer  with  the  British,  who  still  held 
possession  of  the  northern  posts,  and  prompted  them 
to  the  war.* 

But  at  length  they  were  assembled  before  General 
Wayne  and  his  troops,  at  Fort  Greenville,  and  agreed 
upon  the  following  terms  of  peace,  and  boundaries. 
The  old  Wyandot  and  Delaware  boundary  was  re-af- 
firmed, from  the  mouth  of  the  Cuyahoga  to  Fort  Lor- 
amie  ;  from  thence  it  was  continued  to  Fort  Recovery, 
situated  on  the  ground  of  St.  Clair's  defeat,  in  1792 ; 
and  thence  to  the  Ohio  River,  opposite  the  mouth  of 
the  Kentucky  River.  With  the  exception  of  some 
reservations  for  forts,  in  the  north-west,  the  United 
States  relinquished  to  the  Indians  all  claim  to  the 
territory  north  and  west  of  this  line. 

*  Major  llanitramek's  Letter  Book,   1795,   Forts  Wayne  and 

T)efin    ** 


392  FUGITIVE  ESSAYS. 

JJL 

The  Indians  contracted  not  to  sell  to  any  power 
but  the  United  States,  and  received  $20,000  in  goods. 
An  annuity  of  $9,500  in  goods  was  promised  them, 
which  the  government  regarded  as  more  beneficial  to 
them  than  money.  The  reservations  in  Ohio  were,  a 
tract,  six  miles  square,  at  Fort  Sandusky,  on  the  bay 
of  Sandusky;  six  miles  square  at  Fort  Defiance;  six 
rty's  town,  at  the  north  end  of  the  Miami  and 
St.  Mary's  Portage;  and  six  at  the  mouth  of  Lora- 
mie's  Creek  on  the  Miami.  If  anything  should  be 
found  in  treaties,  made  since  1783,  conflicting  with 
the  terms  of  the  present  treaty,  such  parts  were  to  be 
considered  void.*  Ten  hostages  were  taken,  to  secure 
the  restoration  of  all  prisoners,  and  the  nations  re- 
mained at  peace  until  Tecumseh  arose  among  them, 
and  reorganized  the  confederacy,  in  1811. 

We  come  next,  in  the  order  of  time,  to  the  treaty 
of  purchase,  made  at  Fort  Industry  on  the  Miami  of 
the  Lakes,  July  4,  1805,  by  Charles  Jouett,  on  the 
part  of  the  United  States,  Henry  Champion  as  the 
representative  of  the  "  Connecticut  Land  Company," 
and  J.  Mills  for  the  "  Sufferers'  land."  The  Indian 
tribes  represented,  were  the  Wyandots  and  Delawares, 
the  principal  owners;  the  Cnippew*8  and  Ottowas, 
Shawnees,  Munsees,  and  Pottawotouries, 

For  the  consideration  of  an  annuity  of  $1,000, 
and  the  payment  in  band  of  $18,916,  they  ceded  to 
the  United  States  a  tract  lying  south  of  the  Reserve 
and  the  Sufferers'  land,  and  west  of  the  Tuscarawas, 
to  the  Greenville  treaty  line,  bounded  on  the  we-:  by 
the  meridian  of  the  west  line  of  the  "  Fire  "  or  "Suf- 
ferers' lands."  They  relinquished  to  the  Connecticut 
Land  Company  all  the  land  between  the  Cuyahoga 
River  and  the  Fire  lands,  or  "Sufferers,"  being  the 
remainder  of  the  Reserve. 

*  State  Papere,  Vol.  I,  p.  595. 


INDIAN    TITLES    IN    OHIO.  393 

There  remained,  therefore,  only  that  portion  north 
of  the  Greenville  line,  and  west  of  the  meridian  of  the 
Reserve,  to  which  the  Indian  title  attached. 

A  portion  of  this  was  purchased  by  General  Wil- 
liam Hull,  at  Detroit,  on  the  7th  of  November,  1807. 
At  that  time,  the  Ottowas,  Chippewas,  Wyandots,  and 
Pottawotomies,  granted  as  follows :  from  the  mouth 
of  the  Miami  of  the  Lakes,  up  its  channel,  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Auglaize  ;  thence  north  to  the  latitude 
of  the  south  end  of  Lake  Huron ;  thence  north-east 
to  the  "white  rock,"  on  its  western  shore,  and  with 
the  territorial  boundary  to  the  mouth  of  the  Maumee. 

They  received  in  return  $10,000,  and  two  "white 
blacksmiths,"  to  reside  among  them.* 

On  the  25th  of  November,  1808,  General  Hull 
perfected  another  purchase,  of  the  Chippewas,  Ottowas, 
Pottawotomies,  Wyandots,  and  Shawnees,  at  Browns- 
town,  in  Michigan,  by  which  they  granted  a  strip  two 
miles  in  width,  for  the  purpose  of  constructing  a  road, 
from  the  rapids  of  the  Miami  to  the  west  line  of  the 
Reserve  ;  also,  one  hundred  and  twenty  feet  in  width, 
for  a  road  from  Lower  Sandusky  to  the  Greenville 
line.f 

The  old  grudges  of  1786  were  now  reviving  in  the 
breasts  of  the  northern  and  western  tribes,  on  account 
of  the  rapid  increase  and  acquisitions  of  the  whites. 
The  British,  in  anticipation  of  a  war  with  the  L'nited 
States,  made  use  of  this  hostile  inclination  against  us, 
and  the  war  of  1812  ensued. 

The  main  body  of  the  Wyandots,  Delawares,  Sen- 
ecas,  and  Shawnees,  remained  faithful  to  the  United 
States.  They  had  engaged,  during  the  war,  against 
the  Miamis  of  the  Wabash,  on  their  own  responsibility. 
This  warfare  was  adjusted  by  Generals  Harrison  and 

*  State  Papers,  p.  747.  f  State  Papers,  p.  759. 


394  FUGITIVE   ESSAYS. 

Cass,  at  Greenville,  July  22,  1814,  and  these  tribes 
agreed  to  a  mutual  peace.* 

Soon  after  the  peace  with  Great  Britain,  other 
treaties  of  purchase  were  made.  At  one,  dated 
"Spring  Wells,"  near  Detroit,  September  18,  1815, 
the  Chippewas,  Ottowas,  Pottawotimies,  and  those 
hands  of  the  Wyandots,  Delawares,  Senecas,  Shaw- 
.  and  Miamis,  who  had  been  with  the  British 
during  the  war,  confirmed  and  renewed  the  treaty  of 
Greenville,  made  by  General  Wayne,  in  1795. 

The  Miamis  had  repented  before  the  close  of  the 
war,  and  had  signed  a  treaty  at  Greenville,  in  1814. 
The  chiefs  and  warriors  of  the  other  tribes  present, 
who  had  taken  up  arms  against  us,  were  pardoned, 
and  their  possessions  restored.  This  negotiation  was 
conducted,  on  the  part  of  the  United  States,  by  Gen- 
erals Harrison  and  McArthur,  and  by  John  Graham, 
Esq. 

The  tribes  were  again  assembled  by  Generals  Mc 
Arthur  and  Cass,  at  the  Maumee  Rapids,  on  the  29th 
of  September,  1817. 

The  Wyandots,  computed  at  one  thousand  persons, 
ceded  all  their  lands  west  of  the  meridian  of  the  Re- 
serve, north  of  the  Greenville  line,  to  Loramie's  ;  east 
of  the  Portage  path  and  the  St.  Mary's  River  to  Fort 
Wayne ;  thence  dowrn  the  north  bank  of  the  Maumee 
to  the  meridian  of  the  treaty  of  Detroit ;  thence  down 
the  middle  of  the  Maumee  to  the  mouth  of  the  Au- 
glaize, and  so  with  the  channel,  as  described  in  the 
treaty  of  Detroit,  in  1807,  to  the  lake,  and  thence  to 
the  meridian  of  the  Reserve.  They  received  in  re- 
turn ;m  annuity  of  $4,000  in  specie,  and  certain  re- 
servations. 

The  Pottawotimies,  Ottawas,   and  Chippewas,  re- 
linquished a   tract  on  the  north  of  the  Maumee,  be- 
*  State  Papers,  p.  - 


INDIAN    TITLES    IN    OHIO.  895 

tween  the  meridian  of  the  west  line  of  Ohio  and  the 
meridian  of  the  treaty  of  Detroit,  measuring  forty-five 
miles  on  the  latter  meridian  northward. 

The  Pottawotimies  were  granted  an  annuity  of 
$1,300  for  fifteen  years ;  the  Ottowas  of  $1,000  for 
the  same  length  of  time ;  and  the  Chippewas  in  like 
manner,  $1,000. 

The  former  annuities  to  the  Wyandots,  Shawnees, 
and  Delawares,  in  goods,  were  changed  into  specie, 
and  those  due  the  Ottowas  and  Chippewas,  by  the 
treaty  of  Greenville,  were  likewise  reduced  to  cash 
payments. 

The  Delawares  were  to  receive  $500,  in  1818 ; 
the  Senecas  an  annuity  of  $500,  and  the  Shawnees 
of  $2,000  ;  principally  in  consequence  of  their  ad- 
herence to  the  government  during  the  war.  The 
friendly  tribes  were  paid  for  losses  the  sum  of  $14,- 
478. 

At  the  same  time,  the  American  Commissioners  re- 
conveyed  to  the  Wyandots  twelve  miles  square,  at 
Upper  Sandusky,  having  Fort  Ferree  in  the  centre, 
and  also  thirty  thousand  acres  on  the  Sandusky  River. 

To  the  Shawnees,  ten  miles  square,  with  the  centre 
at  Wapahkonnetta,  and  twenty-five  square  miles  on 
Hog  Creek. 

To  the  Shawnees  and  Senecas,  forty-eight  square 
miles  near  Loramie's. 

To  the  Ottowas,  five  miles  square,  where  the  trace 
or  trail  crosses  Blanchard's  Fork  of  the  Auglaize. 

Also,  various  small  grants  to  meritorious  persons 
and  chiefs,  as  per  schedule. 

The  Delawares  received  nine  miles  square  on  the 
Sandusky,  including  Captain  Pipe's  village ;  and  the 
Ottowas  thirty-four  square  miles,  including  McCarty's 
village,  on  the  south  side  of  the  Mauinee.* 
*  State  Papers. 


396  FUGITIVE   ESS 

The  sum  total  of  these  grants  is  three  millions, 
five  hundred  and  eight  thousand,  seven  hundred  and 
sixty  acres  ;  and  of  the  Indian  Reserves,  one  hundred 
and  eighty-five  thousand,  seven  hundred  and  eighty 
acres  ;  making  three  millions,  six  hundred  and  ninety- 
four  thousand,  five  hundred  and  forty  acres  in  all. 
The  share  conveyed  by  the  Wyandots  was  three  mil- 
lions, two  hundred  and  thirty-one  thousand,  five  hun- 
dred and  sixty  acres,  and  the  amount  paid  to  all  the 
tribes,  reduced  to  present  cash  payments,  $140,893, 
or  three  cents  and  eight  mills  per  acre.* 

The  remaining  corner  of  Indian  territory,  between 
the  St.  Mary's,  the  Portage  path,  and  the  Greenville 
line,  Avas  secured  to  the  United  States  by  cession,  from 
the  Miamis  at  the  treaty  of  St.  Mary's,  October  6th, 
1818.  The  Commissioners,  on  the  part  of  the  United 
States,  were  General  Lewis  Cass,  Jonathan  Jennings, 
and  Benjamin  Parkes.f 

The  Reserves  allotted  to  various  tribes  in  Ohio 
have  been  sold  by  them  from  time  to  time,  closing 
with  the  twelve  miles  square  reservation  at  Upper 
Sandusky,  which  was  ceded  by  the  Wyandots  in  1842. 

There  were  treaties  of  amity  and  peace,  in  addi- 
tion to  those  here  enumerated,  in  which  nothing  is 
said  concerning  the  acquisition  of  territory.  At  the 
reduction  of  Fort  Du  Quesne,  in  1758,  by  General 
Forbes,  the  Indians,  engaged  with  the  French  against 
the  English,  concluded  a  treaty  of  peace.  The  north- 
western Indians  did  the  same  at  German  Flats,  in 
December  1704,  the  result  of  Bradstreet's  expedition 
against  tlieni.  In  M*ay  of  the  following  year,  the 
Ohio  Indians,  who  had  met  Colonel  Boquet  OB  the 
Muskingum,  made  a  treaty  with  Sir  William  Johnson. 
Lord  I)unmore,  in  November  1774,  also  concluded  an 
amicable  arrangement  with  them  at  Camp  Charlotte, 

*  State  Papers,  Vol.  II,  p.  131. 


INDIAN   TITLES   IN   OHIO.  SS5 

in  the  county  of  Pickaway.  The  authorities  of  Penn- 
sylvania concluded  a  compact  of  amity  with  the  ad- 
jacent tribes,  in  1765.* 

It  was  thus  only  after  the  execution  of  fifteen 
treaties  of  peace  and  purchase,  during  the  period  of 
sixty  years,  by  means  of  eleven  principal  military  ex- 
peditions into  their  country,  not  including  those  of 
the  war  of  1812,  and  after  fighting  seven  important 
engagements  within  our  own  State,  at  a  loss  of  about 
twelve  hundred  men,  that  our  soil  was  finally  relieved 
from  the  presence,  and  our  citizens  from  the  dread,  of 
the-  Indian  race. 

From  the  outbreak  of  the  French  war,  in  1754, 
to  the  battle  of  the  Rapids,  in  1794,  forty  years,  it  is 
estimated  that  five  thousand  perons,  men,  women,  and 
children,  suffered  captivity  or  death,  on  the  western 
frontiers. 

The  number  of  whites  slain  in  battle  exceeded  the 
number  of  warriors  destroyed  by  private  and  public 
efforts. 

Yet,  in  1811,  the  five  tribes,  remaining  in  Ohio, 
could  muster  only  about  two  thousand  warriors,  or 
eight  thousand  souls  in  all.  In  1764,  they  were 
estimated  at  three  thousand  warriors,  and  fifteen 
thousand  in  the  aggregate,  the  proportion  of  women 
and  children  being  greater  during  peace,  and  before 
their  difficulties  with  the  whites. 

*  Craig's  Discourse  on  the  Boundary  of  Pennsylvania. 


34 


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